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The agricultural sector produces a large amount of organic waste as by-products (crop remains, foliage, seed pods, straw, etc.). Currently, these materials are not properly treated and their uncontrolled disposal can lead to many problems. In many countries crop remains are burned on the field, sometimes causing severe air pollution as well as damage health. This contributes to climate change and could impact the climate further to the point of irreversible damage. To realize a sustainable agriculture, organic wastes should not be disposed or burned but used as a cheap source for biomaterials. In line with the philosophy of the bio-based economy, agricultural waste is recycled and used as raw material in the chemical industry, replacing fossil fuels. However, the process of converting agricultural waste into useful products is not efficient and can be improved further for optimization. One of the dominant components of agricultural waste is lignocellulose, a complex biomaterial that is difficult to handle. To break down this complex structure, large amounts of energy or chemicals for treatment are required. This thesis aims to explore novel natural biological catalysts that can help to degrade lignocellulose and deliver useful compounds for the bio-based chemical industry. To discover such novel catalysts, the digestive systems of a number of different animals: goats, springtails, isopods and termites were investigated. Animal guts are mini ecosystems that contain many unknown interesting bacteria. These microorganisms are adapted to the host and might have interesting properties that can be explored. By looking at these organisms and their catalysts it is possible to identify and mine novel genes that can be used to breakdown biomass. This process creates substrates that can be used for many other procedures. In this thesis my main focus was on enzymes that can break down carbohydrates. The various bonds in complex carbohydrate molecules are cleaved by different enzymes. Every bacterium has a suit of carbohydrate-active enzymes, called CAZymes. Using metagenomics and bioinformatic tools to explore the genomes of microbial communities in search of novel CAZymes. Unlike traditional culturing methods, metagenomics is aimed at the whole genome of the communities involved, that is, all bacteria jointly. In addition, genes encoding antibiotic resistance, and the production of secondary metabolites were investigated since these two gene categories greatly contribute to the survival of bacteria in complex microbial communities. The work on this thesis shows the possibilities of using bioinformatic tools to investigate the microbiome communities and mine for interesting enzymes from metagenomes. The bacterial community appears to be very diverse and different between hosts. However, at the enzymatic level there is a core group of carbohydrate enzymes and antibiotic resistances. Some of the studied enzymes show the potential for bio-applications. The method could be further tested on different animal metagenomes. With the expansion of sequencing and bioinformatic tools as well as advances in computing and machine learning, it is possible to use and understand more about the natural environment. These tools could help to mine enzymes with interesting properties. Together with enzyme characterization, the bioinformatic tools could be improved further. When the whole process is streamlined and part of a pipeline, a large number of enzymes can be identified and tested to find optimal conditions for their action. These enzymes can be combined together to create cocktails, which can efficiently breakdown biomass. Since the enzymes are natural and the products are used as substrates, little energy and resources are wasted. Beneficial enzymes and bacteria are also preserved and promoted. By creating a recycling plant, agricultural waste can turn into new substrates and products, which in turn can help to improve the environment.

The agricultural sector produces a large amount of organic waste as by-products (crop remains, foliage, seed pods, straw, etc.). Currently, these materials are not properly treated and their uncontrolled disposal can lead to many problems. In many countries crop remains are burned on the field, sometimes causing severe air pollution as well as damage health. This contributes to climate change and could impact the climate further to the point of irreversible damage. To realize a sustainable agriculture, organic wastes should not be disposed or burned but used as a cheap source for biomaterials. In line with the philosophy of the bio-based economy, agricultural waste is recycled and used as raw material in the chemical industry, replacing fossil fuels. However, the process of converting agricultural waste into useful products is not efficient and can be improved further for optimization. One of the dominant components of agricultural waste is lignocellulose, a complex biomaterial that is difficult to handle. To break down this complex structure, large amounts of energy or chemicals for treatment are required. This thesis aims to explore novel natural biological catalysts that can help to degrade lignocellulose and deliver useful compounds for the bio-based chemical industry. To discover such novel catalysts, the digestive systems of a number of different animals: goats, springtails, isopods and termites were investigated. Animal guts are mini ecosystems that contain many unknown interesting bacteria. These microorganisms are adapted to the host and might have interesting properties that can be explored. By looking at these organisms and their catalysts it is possible to identify and mine novel genes that can be used to breakdown biomass. This process creates substrates that can be used for many other procedures. In this thesis my main focus was on enzymes that can break down carbohydrates. The various bonds in complex carbohydrate molecules are cleaved by different enzymes. Every bacterium has a suit of carbohydrate-active enzymes, called CAZymes. Using metagenomics and bioinformatic tools to explore the genomes of microbial communities in search of novel CAZymes. Unlike traditional culturing methods, metagenomics is aimed at the whole genome of the communities involved, that is, all bacteria jointly. In addition, genes encoding antibiotic resistance, and the production of secondary metabolites were investigated since these two gene categories greatly contribute to the survival of bacteria in complex microbial communities. The work on this thesis shows the possibilities of using bioinformatic tools to investigate the microbiome communities and mine for interesting enzymes from metagenomes. The bacterial community appears to be very diverse and different between hosts. However, at the enzymatic level there is a core group of carbohydrate enzymes and antibiotic resistances. Some of the studied enzymes show the potential for bio-applications. The method could be further tested on different animal metagenomes. With the expansion of sequencing and bioinformatic tools as well as advances in computing and machine learning, it is possible to use and understand more about the natural environment. These tools could help to mine enzymes with interesting properties. Together with enzyme characterization, the bioinformatic tools could be improved further. When the whole process is streamlined and part of a pipeline, a large number of enzymes can be identified and tested to find optimal conditions for their action. These enzymes can be combined together to create cocktails, which can efficiently breakdown biomass. Since the enzymes are natural and the products are used as substrates, little energy and resources are wasted. Beneficial enzymes and bacteria are also preserved and promoted. By creating a recycling plant, agricultural waste can turn into new substrates and products, which in turn can help to improve the environment.

This thesis documents as well as questions how the presence of large mining operations in Andean regions of Peru alters social and natural landscapes. Taking conflicts over water as a useful entry-point for the analysis, it explores and unravels the dilemmas and challenges faced by the main conflicting actors: rural communities and mining companies. Through an in-depth analysis of how the actors navigate these challenges, focusing on those related to water, the thesis sets out to understand what happens with water in contexts of mineral extraction. It traces changes in how water is accessed, controlled and governed, and by whom. By making the complex character of water politics in mining contexts explicit, the thesis sheds light on how mining reconfigures water governance arrangements, while also contributing to wider debates about water governance in contexts characterized by huge power differences.

In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the mining sector has the potential to play a pivotal role in post-conflict reconstruction (World Bank, 2008), and artisanal mining sustains the livelihoods of millions people in the country (PACT, 2010). However, in the last 15 years, minerals from this artisanal mining have been ill-reputed. Eastern DRC has often been characterised by chronic instability and violent conflicts (Autesserre, 2010; Stearns, 2011) because it is widely believed that minerals in this region have attracted the greed of national and foreign armed groups, who benefit from the mining business. Although this ‘greed hypothesis’ has been criticised for its inconsistent performance in explaining resource-related conflicts (Le Billon, 2010; Ross, 2006), various national and international reform initiatives have gained momentum (Verbruggen et al., 2011). These initiatives aim to make the Congolese artisanal mining sector more transparent and to prevent ‘conflict minerals’ from entering the international market. In 2014, 13 reform initiatives—10 focusing on 3T (tantalum, tin and tungsten) and three on gold—were operational in eastern DRC (Cuvelier et al. 2014: 5). The implicit assumptions are that mining reforms will fully ‘clean’ artisanal mining of violence and corruption and that this will contribute to sustaining people’s livelihoods (Garrett and Mitchell, 2009: 12). This study investigated initiatives intended to ‘formalise’ artisanal mining in DRC—in other words, they aimed to bring mining under state control. The study especially focuses on the effects of one among these initiatives—the ITRI Tin Supply Chain Initiative (iTSCi)—on two groups of actors: miners (creuseurs) and middlemen (negociants). This thesis thus presents a fine-grained case study of the iTSCi. Designed by the International Tin Research Institute in 2009, iTSCi provides a means of determining the origin of 3T and documenting the trading chain for these minerals by ‘tagging and bagging’ the loads of 3T near miners’ shafts (at postes d’achat/selling points or buying stations), at counting offices (comptoirs) and in mineral depots, before the minerals are exported through the international market. This is a qualitative study undertaken at three coltan mining sites of northern Katanga: Kahendwa, Kisengo and Mai-Baridi. Coltan has been extracted at these sites since 2007. From March 2013 to September 2014, data were collected using participant observation of people’s practices (extraction/sale of coltan and various types of interactions between trading houses, cooperatives, mineworkers (creuseurs) and middlemen (negociants), as well as detailed in-depth interviews with creuseurs, negociants and their households. Data were also collected from the staff of mining cooperatives, trading houses, state authorities and civil servants—predominantly of the Service d’Assistance et d’Encadrement du Small-Scale Mining (SAESSCAM) and the Division des Mines. The last group of informants were a group of clandestine coltan negociants (known as hiboux—literally, ‘owls’), who were followed in the study. The purpose of this research is to study the micro-dynamics of changes after the reforms following the implementation of iTSCi. The study thus provides insights into how iTSCi is concretely implemented and how it has altered the organisation of mining and the trade of coltan. The study also aims to examine how this organisation affected creuseurs and negociants. The main research question of this study is as follows: How have initiatives to reform artisanal mining (iTSCi in particular) affected institutional change, how does this relate to changes in patterns of coltan production and trade, how were creuseurs and negociants affected by these changes, and how did these groups respond in the coltan mining areas of Kahendwa, Kisengo and Mai Baridi (northern Katanga) from 2009 to 2014? Analytically, the study adopted three main theoretical perspectives. First, an actor-oriented approach was taken, building on the premise that individual actors have the agency, knowledge and experience to reflect upon their situation and to respond to changes in their surrounding context (Giddens, 1984). Although the examined mining reforms consist predominantly of ‘ready-made’ techniques such as iTSCi’s ‘tagging and bagging’, analysing reforms with an actor orientation helps to highlight people’s reactions and responses. This includes how reform policies are applied in institutions (e.g. mining cooperatives), how they interact, how they are assigned meaning and how they are negotiated by social actors (Christoplos and Hilhorst, 2009). Second, the study builds on the sociology of economic life, which holds that economic action is a form of social action that is socially ‘embedded’, meaning that it is linked with or dependent on actions and institutions (such as social networks) that are noneconomic in content, goals and processes (Granovetter, 2005). This perspective facilitates the analysis of the livelihoods of negociants, including mechanisms of smuggling minerals into and beyond the mining areas where iTSCi is in force. Third, this thesis introduced the original concept of ‘enclaves of regulations’. These enclaves refer to the mining areas where iTSCi or other reforms are in force. This thesis has shown that, although these ‘enclaves’ appear to be ‘closed’ and insulated from the environment in terms of the locally applied rules for the mining and trading of minerals (e.g. ‘tagging and bagging’), in reality, such closure is not complete. This thesis has demonstrated that it would therefore be more appropriate to consider these ‘enclaves’ as semi-autonomous fields with porous boundaries. Apart from the introduction and the concluding chapters, this thesis is composed of five chapters. Chapter 2 explores the evolution of the mineral sector in the Katanga province. It analyses the history of mining, the initiation of artisanal mining and how the ongoing reforms have been informed by this history. In this chapter, it is shown that there is a long history of the organisation of mining in the Katangese province. The reforms therefore did not enter into a stage of anarchy, or an institutional void, but they added a layer to already existing forms of organisation. Chapter 3 focuses on mining cooperatives as newly introduced institutions aimed at governing the artisanal mining sites. Through a single case study, the chapter analyses how these cooperatives —especially the Cooperative des Artisanaux Miniers du Congo, CDMC—were introduced into the mining areas and how they interacted and blended with pre-existing miners’ organisations. This chapter demonstrates that cooperatives have been an emergent—rather than durable—solution in terms of representing the interests of artisanal miners. In Chapter 4, I provide a different perspective on ‘conflict minerals’. I thus introduce the notion of ‘reform conflicts’ to emphasise that, although ongoing reforms aim to sever the supposed linkages between the artisanal mining business and violent conflicts, these reforms have become a driving force behind the emergence of new conflicts over property rights and access to minerals. Chapter 5 is about livelihoods. It analyses how the reforms have influenced the livelihoods and socioeconomic position of negociants. This chapter also explores what kind of opportunities the reforms have offered to this group of mineral brokers often considered powerful in the mineral supply chain and explains what kind of constraints the negociants have confronted and why they have opted to diversify their livelihood portfolios. The chapter has shown that the reforms have affected this group of mineral brokers in different ways. Some negociants were well off, whereas others have been excluded from the mineral commodity chain. These findings contradict the widespread opinion that negociants are always abusive brokers in the mineral production and commodity chain. Chapter 6 analyses the responses of creuseurs and negociants to iTSCi. Although the mining sites where iTSCi is in force appear to be ‘enclaves of regulations’, I explore the strategies of creuseurs and negociants to bypass iTSCi and the reforms, especially around the coltan trade. This chapter demonstrates that coltan smuggling is a deeply rooted practice. Despite the reforms, smuggling continues in different forms. All of the elements highlighted above suggest that mining reforms have undergone a major shift, from addressing the initial problems associated with ‘conflict minerals’ to creating or reinforcing various types of problems, such as the influence of ‘big men’ in the mining business, coltan smuggling and the emergence of new conflicts over accessing minerals. This means that reform initiatives such as iTSCi should be based on knowledge about the actual situation. Thus, understanding and addressing these new types of problems calls for a comprehensive approach at both local and broader levels.

Met het verdwijnen van zee-ijs in het Noordpoolgebied lonkt een nieuw wingewest voor olie en gas. Het Arctisch Programma van Wageningen UR legt de basis voor het doorgronden van de effecten op het ecosysteem. ‘Waar mag iets wel en waar niet? Die discussie moet worden gevoed met onafhankelijke wetenschappelijke kennis.’

Support for indigenous peoples has been increasing over the last few decades. This can be seen internationally, as well as in several domestic contexts. The support for indigenous people has been linked to the increasingly prominent impetus to conserve the Earth’s biodiversity and environment. Indigenous people are being recognized for their role in protecting the places in which they live in and that they value in cultural or spiritual terms. This recognition has partly fuelled the support for indigenous lifestyles and the related management of resources. These traditional lifestyles are also presented by activists from within these communities, as a critique of mainstream development. This is echoed by the many activists and activist organizations involved in supporting indigenous people’s causes across the world. A cause that indigenous people have often rallied around is the resistance towards mining on indigenous land. This is a cause that has attracted a significant amount of support, particularly when the land in question had spiritual or cultural value for an indigenous community. Accordingly, there have been several success stories of resistance towards mining on land that indigenous people believed was sacred, in several different continents. This thesis focuses on such narratives in the Indian context. It examines how, why and to what effect, local and international activists got involved in supporting a movement to protect the Niyamgiri Mountain in east-central India from bauxite extraction by Vedanta Resources, a multi-national mining company. The Niyamgiri Mountain was believed to be sacred by the Dongaria Kondh community which lived there and which is generally understood (though not officially recognized) as an indigenous community. The movement, which this thesis refers to as the Niyamgiri Movement, was finally successful – since the mining project was banned by the Indian government. In addition to a focus on this movement, the thesis also compares this movement with the anti-mining movement on the island of Palawan in the Philippines. Indigenous peoples constitute minority groups in many of the countries in the Global South. It is also common for governments in the Global South to promote mining as an economic development strategy. This has led to frequent conflicts between indigenous peoples and mining companies. In some of the countries in the Global South, such as the Philippines, indigenous peoples are given official recognition. Whereas in others, such as India, there are affirmative action programs targeting groups claiming indigenous identity, as well as special legislations aimed at protecting their land, although no official recognition of the indigenous identity of these groups exists. Despite this, in contexts such as India there is often a general cultural understanding that groups which claim an indigenous identity are in some way ‘primordial’ – to use a word that translates best from the Indian context, in which the terms Adi Vasi (Original/Primordial Dwellers) or Adim Janajati (Primordial Tribes) are commonly used for such groups. Given that there is at least some degree of cultural acceptance (if not an official recognition) of the indigenous identity of some of the groups that are entering into conflicts with mining companies, an important question relates to the reasons why local activists may get involved in supporting indigenous struggles against mining and how they may understand indigeneity in this context. Another important question is related to the laws that are applicable in local contexts and which may be used to support the struggles of groups that claim indigenous identity. The Forest Rights Act in India is such a law and the thesis explores how it was used in the context of the Niyamgiri Movement. Finally, it is important to consider how people who are not indigenous and who may not have an activist orientation, can be made to take a sympathetic view of indigenous struggles against mining. In the context of the Niyamgiri Movement in India, this thesis explores how creative representations by activists translated the nature religiosity of the Dongaria Kondhs into familiar terms that mainstream popular discourse in India could identify with. In the thesis, the comparison of the Niyamgiri Movement in India with the anti-mining movement on the island of Palawan in the Philippines examines the way in which social movements in two different nation-state contexts engage with globalized discourses pertaining to the linkages between indigenous issues and conservation discourses. For a deeper examination of the way indigenous people are represented by globalized popular discourses, the thesis examines how images from Hollywood were used to generate sympathy for the Dongaria Kondhs’ cause in the Niyamgiri Movement. An examination of the international activism which supported the Niyamgiri Movement and which has been effective in bringing about the success of the movement i.e. the banning of the mining project on Niyamgiri, is another important focal point of the thesis. A commitment towards exploring the activist politics that is relevant to the lives of indigenous peoples has inspired this thesis, which seeks to understand effective activist strategies and identify problematic ones in relation to the protection of land with cultural or spiritual value for indigenous peoples. Keeping this in view, it explores the insights provided by different theories, in order to use these to contribute towards orienting activist practice towards greater effectiveness as well as higher self-reflexivity.

For more than two decades, the exploitation and trade of minerals has fuelled armed conflict and fostered a climate of insecurity that has led to the deaths of thousands of people in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) (Katanga, Ituri, Maniema, North and South Kivu). This has been seen as a consequence of prolonged socioeconomic and political instability since the late 1980s and 1990s, when a civil war led to the collapse of the Zairian state and there were civil wars in neighbouring countries. As a result of this situation, many armed groups prospered in this region. Mineral exploitation, especially of tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold, formed an incentive for these groups to stay in the strategic areas of the territory (e.g. mining areas and those on the main transport routes) and to continue the fighting. The diggers and the local populations were the first victims of conflict over the control of the natural resources that directly or indirectly support the war. These people have been subjected to permanent violence and illegal taxation. Massacres, kidnappings, looting, forced labour and insecurity have been part of their everyday lives. Violence was primarily directed at those involved in the supply chain—from extraction to trading minerals outside the mining sites. In the eastern provinces of DRC, transporters, traders and diggers, as well as women and children attached to auxiliary work, such as crushing or washing the minerals, were taxed and ransomed under threats and subjected to the use of violence. Faced with this critical situation in DRC, the international community did not remain silent. A growing movement for greater accountability of multinational companies regarding human rights and greater transparency of supply chains of minerals exploited in DRC has emerged and become a reality in the global market. From simple voluntary initiatives to international norms, these approaches are based on the same principle: due diligence applied to ‘conflict minerals’. When conflict in DRC is discussed, two things seem to stand out systematically. First, there is the ‘resource curse’, referring to the impoverishment of local populations living in mining zones, corruption and poor governance. Second is the discussion of ‘sexual violence as a weapon of war’ against women. Little is said about the women who work at artisanal mining sites, except to draw a simplistic portrait of passive victims. The truth is that the mining community is far more complex than what has been pictured, and the high-risk mining sector is sometimes considered a source of opportunity for certain women. Indeed, in DRC, it is estimated that the artisanal mining sector accounts for 90% of the national production and directly or indirectly furnishes the livelihoods of almost 20% of the population, including many women. Traditionally, in several local cultures in DRC, women are not allowed to enter the mines. Instead, they are assigned to secondary tasks in the processing phase of mineral exploitation: transporting, crushing, washing and reprocessing. Some women sell alcoholic beverages or other goods, and others are engaged in prostitution. This thesis focuses on women and mining. Instead of viewing women at the mining sites as victims, the study took an actor-oriented perspective. This starts from the idea that all women at the mining sites have agency and are creating room for manoeuvre to overcome the difficult situations they face in the world of mining. However, there are large disparities in the room for manoeuvre available to different women; some women have very few options, whereas others can diversify and expand their opportunities. Taking this approach, the study sought to answer the main research question: How do differentially positioned women navigate and negotiate the transformations of artisanal mining in the context of mining reforms in eastern DRC? The research took place from 2013 to 2014, partly in the province of South Kivu (Nyabibwe and Kamituga) and partly in North Katanga, in the current province of Tanganyika (Kisengo and Manono). Two mining sites were chosen in each area, either because they were pilot sites for implementation of the reform initiatives (Nyabibwe and Kisengo) or because of large numbers of women working as miners (Kamituga and Manono). This research is part of the ‘Down to earth: Governance dynamics and social change in artisanal and small-scale mining in DRC’ research programme. This programme aims to understand the negotiated outcomes of the implementation of conflict mineral policy in the eastern Congolese artisanal mining sector on three important topics: gender, livelihoods and governance. This thesis project addressed the first aspect in particular and aimed to contribute to the debate on mining reforms from a gender perspective. Chapter 1 starts with a general introduction to the research objectives, questions and methods. It describes the process through which the studied mining sites were selected based on either the presence of iTSCi initiatives or a great number of women working in the mineral supply chain. This research has essentially relied on qualitative methods, such as interviews, focus groups, life histories and observation. This chapter also describes some of the personal experiences during the fieldwork period. Chapter 2, which was jointly written with J. Cuvelier, D. Hilhorst and G. Van der Haar, introduces the debate around the conflict-related discourse on women’s integration in the mining sector. We examined the rise in international-level attention from international NGOs regarding international norms and the ban of ‘conflict minerals’ exploited in DRC. The resulting reforms, which were intended to improve women’s lives, were observed to also ultimately have negative side effects. The prohibition of pregnant women from the mines was generalised to all women, and access to the mining economy become a matter of negotiation for women. In the same vein, taking the particular case of Nyabibwe, women working as intermediaries between traders and diggers, although their work was an illegal practice in the government’s view (especially because of traceability issues), managed to negotiate recognition for their activities by creating their own organisation and forming political alliances. The thesis sheds light on the consequence of protectionist measures on women in mining and lays the groundwork for the following chapters, which further explore the research problem. Chapter 3, jointly written with G. Van der Haar, introduces the world of women in the mining areas by presenting reasons that lead women to move to and install themselves in mining centres. The analysis examines push and pull factors and also considers the concept of social navigation. The findings demonstrate that there are multiple, interrelated reasons to migrate to and to install oneself in the mining areas. Push and pull factors have merged over time and resulted in complex motives. This chapter adds to the understanding of how women create new sources of revenue and seek, with varying levels of success, to mitigate situations of vulnerability. In Chapter 4, I analyse the activities that women perform in the mining areas in more depth and describe what differentiates these women. The chapter begins with a descriptive analysis of the activities directly and indirectly related to mineral exploitation, together with a description of prostitution in the mining areas. The study identified social capital, financial assets and credit, and livelihood diversification among the factors that may differentiate these women. The findings also show that the reform process itself is a factor of differentiation, because it creates unbalanced power relations between those who are able to afford an identification card (a requirement of the formalisation process) and those who are not. The chapter concludes that, although many scholars have argued that women are working in the dire situation of perilous, exploitative and marginalised conditions, some women gain power positions and manage to save money and invest in other activities. Through their social networks, some women are able to gain access to the mining economy and improve their situation. In Chapter 5, jointly written with J. Cuvelier, we explore how, as is the case for men, there are also elites among women. These elites can be considered ‘big women’. Their power is based on either customary or official authority. With the implementation of the reform initiatives, the importance of official authority increases, to the detriment of customary authority. Based on the case of Kisengo and, in particular, on two female elites—one based on customary and the other on official power—we analyse how elite women negotiate and maintain power. Especially interesting for this study was how both ‘big women’ took advantage of their privileged access to the public authorities to negotiate informal arrangements for a group of women working in the coltan supply chain, allowing their clients (followers) to circumvent certain restrictive regulations concerning women’s access to mining activities. These elite women managed to control access to labour opportunities for women in the local mining economy. Chapter 6, jointly written with D. Hilhorst, explains that, following the developments of the reform initiatives, there was no longer only one discourse (conflict-related) to be taken into account when analysing the problem of women’s access to the mining economy. At international level, there is also a more inclusive discourse (gender mainstreaming). This coexists with the local ideology based on culture, in which women are marginalised and discriminated against. The civil servants who must implement the law regarding the integration of women in mining activities must face the coexistence of these different ideologies, which are sometimes contradictory. This has direct consequences for women’s access to the mining economy, although some women do create room for manoeuvre by forming alliances with civil servants. Concluding this thesis, Chapter 7 responds to the concerns raised in the introduction. Starting from the concept of agency, and taking an actor-oriented approach, the thesis concludes with three key points about how the reform initiatives affect the positions of woman: 1) The research has demonstrated that the socio political situation in the DRC has given rise to different types of gender discourses at international level which in addition to local culture and believe have impacted on the access of women to the mineral exploitation. 2) The research discovered that women in mining have different needs and different ways of dealing with their situations: they are agents who make decisions based on either strategic opportunity or survival.3). Finally, the research demonstrated that the reform process is likely to increase particular forms of marginalisation in the mining labour regimes. They may also allow for the creation of power dynamics based on new social networks that discriminate against those who were already vulnerable. Nevertheless, the research witnesses cases of women, who have benefited from the presence of the reform initiatives to improve their conditions and create more opportunities.

In de Lausitz, in het oosten van Duitsland, ruim honderd kilometer ten zuiden van Berlijn bevinden zich bruinkoolmijnen. Het integreren van landschapsnarratie met het landschappelijk en ecologisch benaderen van landschapsherstel als uitgangspunt voor het ontwerpen aan voormalige bruinkoolmijnen in de Lausitz. Dat is de inzet van de masterstudie, waarover in dit artikel verslag wordt gedaan

In de zomer van 2000 werden op een olieplatform in het zuidelijk deel van de Noordzee Drieteenmeeuwen ontdekt. Bij een bezoek in 2005 werd zelfs een kolonie ontdekt. In 2006 werden ook op andere platforms nog Drieteenmeeuwen aangetroffen.

A consortium has drilled a production well linked to the existing production platform A6-A. This platform is located in an ‘FFH-area’ with a Natura 2000 designation area. Wintershall (one of the consortium partners) has requested IMARES to conduct a post-drilling survey at the A6-A platform site to assess the impact of the drilling activities. The 2014 survey consisted of the same elements (including sampling of sediment, side scan sonar and video recordings from the sea floor), as well as the same sampling grid as in the baseline study in 2011. Results of the post-drilling survey (2014) are analysed and compared with the 2011 survey to assess any impact of the drilling activities.

A consortium has drilled a production well linked to the existing production platform A6-A. This platform is located in an ‘FFH-area’ with a Natura 2000 designation area. Wintershall (one of the consortium partners) has requested IMARES to conduct a post-drilling survey at the A6-A platform site to assess the impact of the drilling activities. The 2014 survey consisted of the same elements (including sampling of sediment, side scan sonar and video recordings from the sea floor), as well as the same sampling grid as in the baseline study in 2011. Results of the post-drilling survey (2014) are analysed and compared with the 2011 survey to assess any impact of the drilling activities.

This manual is intended to assist operators on the Dutch Continental Shelf in the application of the Dutch implementation of the risk-based approach (RBA). In essence all oil and gas platforms on the Dutch Continental Shelf (DCS) have to go through the risk management cycle at least once, where the pre-screening determines in which order the platforms enter the cycle. The risk management cycle follows all steps required for the RBA, which are all individually addressed in the following chapters: chapter 3 (sampling); chapter 4 (whole effluent toxicity risk assessment, including ecotoxicological testing of the effluent and risk characterisation); chapter 5 (substance-based risk assessment, including chemical analysis and risk characterisation); chapter 6 (measures) and chapter 7 (reporting).

De hoofdvraag van dit onderzoek is: wat is de ruimtelijke en temporele dynamiek van de bodemdiergemeenschap van de Zeeuwse Banken in relatie tot de zandwinning activiteiten. Na zandwinning zal de bodemdiergemeenschap zich weer herstellen. In theorie is het herstel compleet als er geen significante verschillen zijn in bodemdiersamenstelling en biomassa in het gewonnen gebied en hetzelfde gebied als er niet was gewonnen. In de praktijk wordt het herstel in het gewonnen gebied vergeleken met een referentiegebied in de buurt waar geen zand is gewonnen.

Met het verdwijnen van zee-ijs in het Noordpoolgebied lonkt een nieuw wingewest voor olie en gas. Het Arctisch Programma van Wageningen UR legt de basis voor het doorgronden van de effecten op het ecosysteem. ‘Waar mag iets wel en waar niet? Die discussie moet worden gevoed met onafhankelijke wetenschappelijke kennis.’

De hoofdvraag van dit onderzoek is: wat is de ruimtelijke en temporele dynamiek van de bodemdiergemeenschap van de Zeeuwse Banken in relatie tot de zandwinning activiteiten. Na zandwinning zal de bodemdiergemeenschap zich weer herstellen. In theorie is het herstel compleet als er geen significante verschillen zijn in bodemdiersamenstelling en biomassa in het gewonnen gebied en hetzelfde gebied als er niet was gewonnen. In de praktijk wordt het herstel in het gewonnen gebied vergeleken met een referentiegebied in de buurt waar geen zand is gewonnen.

This manual is intended to assist operators on the Dutch Continental Shelf in the application of the Dutch implementation of the risk-based approach (RBA). In essence all oil and gas platforms on the Dutch Continental Shelf (DCS) have to go through the risk management cycle at least once, where the pre-screening determines in which order the platforms enter the cycle. The risk management cycle follows all steps required for the RBA, which are all individually addressed in the following chapters: chapter 3 (sampling); chapter 4 (whole effluent toxicity risk assessment, including ecotoxicological testing of the effluent and risk characterisation); chapter 5 (substance-based risk assessment, including chemical analysis and risk characterisation); chapter 6 (measures) and chapter 7 (reporting).

Opkomst en ondergang van de Britse mijnindustrie op SpitsbergenFrigga Kruse heeft voor haar promotie onderzoek gedaan naar de opkomst en het verval van vier Britse bedrijven die betrokken waren bij de industrialisatie van Spitsbergen in de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw. Hoewel geopolitieke motieven op verschillende momenten een belangrijke rol speelden (zoals tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog), waren economische drijfveren uiteindelijk doorslaggevend voor de oprichting, de bedrijfsactiviteiten en het uiteindelijk opheffen van de vier mijnbouw- en exploratiebedrijven. Uiteindelijk was geen enkel bedrijf in staat winstgevend te opereren in het hoge noorden.Kruse bestudeerde de geschiedenis van de bedrijven Spitzbergen Coal & Trading Co., Spitzbergen Mining & Exploration Syndicate, Northern Exploration Co. en Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate. Ze onderzocht hoe en waarom deze bedrijven geïnteresseerd raakten in Spitsbergen, welke activiteiten ze ontplooiden in het poolgebied, waarom ze uiteindelijk werden opgegeven en welke gevolgen hun activiteiten hadden op enerzijds de lokale natuurlijke omgeving en anderzijds op de grotere politieke en economische context.Kruses onderzoek maakt deel uit van het Internationaal Pooljaar project LASHIPA (Large-Scale Historical Exploitation of Polar Areas). Het bronmateriaal komt voort uit zowel archeologisch veldwerk op Spitsbergen als uit intensief historisch onderzoek in diverse internationale archieven. De archeologische component was zeer belangrijk omdat resterend materiaal uit die tijd tot nog toe slecht bestudeerd en onbegrepen is., Kruse’s PhD thesis concerns four British companies during the industrialisation of the arctic archipelago (now Svalbard) in the early 20th century. Against the backdrop of Britain’s leading coal industry, its global empire, and its contribution to polar discovery, it is interesting to ask, ‘What exactly drove the British development in the former no man’s land?’ Rooted in the fields of industrial archaeology and mining history, the study is part of the LASHIPA (Large-scale Historical Exploitation of Polar Areas) Project of the International Polar Year 2007-2008. Guided by the core-periphery model and the actor network theory (ANT), fieldwork and archival research gave rise to six empirical chapters that address why the firms were started; how they operated; why they wound up; and what their impacts were. The results show that the archaeological landscape of mineral exploration in particular is poorly understood. Of the four companies, two focussed on mining and were terminated before the First World War because their local networks could not provide the natural resources that their global networks wanted. Two were land-grabbing exploration companies that used the greatly politicised climate after the war to prolong their existence until no longer commercially viable. The study confirms that the companies were founded for purely economic reasons, but secondary political motivations amplified at a time of international conflict sustained them beyond economic feasibility.

Opkomst en ondergang van de Britse mijnindustrie op Spitsbergen Frigga Kruse heeft voor haar promotie onderzoek gedaan naar de opkomst en het verval van vier Britse bedrijven die betrokken waren bij de industrialisatie van Spitsbergen in de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw. Hoewel geopolitieke motieven op verschillende momenten een belangrijke rol speelden (zoals tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog), waren economische drijfveren uiteindelijk doorslaggevend voor de oprichting, de bedrijfsactiviteiten en het uiteindelijk opheffen van de vier mijnbouw- en exploratiebedrijven. Uiteindelijk was geen enkel bedrijf in staat winstgevend te opereren in het hoge noorden. Kruse bestudeerde de geschiedenis van de bedrijven Spitzbergen Coal & Trading Co., Spitzbergen Mining & Exploration Syndicate, Northern Exploration Co. en Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate. Ze onderzocht hoe en waarom deze bedrijven geïnteresseerd raakten in Spitsbergen, welke activiteiten ze ontplooiden in het poolgebied, waarom ze uiteindelijk werden opgegeven en welke gevolgen hun activiteiten hadden op enerzijds de lokale natuurlijke omgeving en anderzijds op de grotere politieke en economische context. Kruses onderzoek maakt deel uit van het Internationaal Pooljaar project LASHIPA (Large-Scale Historical Exploitation of Polar Areas). Het bronmateriaal komt voort uit zowel archeologisch veldwerk op Spitsbergen als uit intensief historisch onderzoek in diverse internationale archieven. De archeologische component was zeer belangrijk omdat resterend materiaal uit die tijd tot nog toe slecht bestudeerd en onbegrepen is.

Belangrijke conclusies uit dit rapport: Actief meedoen in de ontwikkeling van deep sea mining biedt grote kansen voor Nederland, zowel voor een belangrijke economische sector als voor de wereldwijde ambitie om de biodiversiteit van de aarde niet verder achteruit te laten gaan. Het zou goed zijn als Nederland inzet op samenwerking met bedrijfsleven via de topsectoren én op een rol in de International Seabed Authority. Het is dan wel essentieel dat deze twee trajecten kennis en ervaring uitwisselen; doen ze dat niet, dan bestaat er een kans dat ze elkaar tegenwerken. Het lijkt ons daarom een goed idee om een Nederlandse visie te ontwikkelen op diepzeemijnbouw en de kansen voor Nederlandse partijen te identificeren. Dit zou in gezamenlijk verband kunnen worden opgesteld met vertegenwoordigers van Nederlandse overheden, industrie, onderzoek en NGO’s.

Belangrijke conclusies uit dit rapport: Actief meedoen in de ontwikkeling van deep sea mining biedt grote kansen voor Nederland, zowel voor een belangrijke economische sector als voor de wereldwijde ambitie om de biodiversiteit van de aarde niet verder achteruit te laten gaan. Het zou goed zijn als Nederland inzet op samenwerking met bedrijfsleven via de topsectoren én op een rol in de International Seabed Authority. Het is dan wel essentieel dat deze twee trajecten kennis en ervaring uitwisselen; doen ze dat niet, dan bestaat er een kans dat ze elkaar tegenwerken. Het lijkt ons daarom een goed idee om een Nederlandse visie te ontwikkelen op diepzeemijnbouw en de kansen voor Nederlandse partijen te identificeren. Dit zou in gezamenlijk verband kunnen worden opgesteld met vertegenwoordigers van Nederlandse overheden, industrie, onderzoek en NGO’s.

Opkomst en ondergang van de Britse mijnindustrie op Spitsbergen Frigga Kruse heeft voor haar promotie onderzoek gedaan naar de opkomst en het verval van vier Britse bedrijven die betrokken waren bij de industrialisatie van Spitsbergen in de eerste helft van de twintigste eeuw. Hoewel geopolitieke motieven op verschillende momenten een belangrijke rol speelden (zoals tijdens de Eerste Wereldoorlog), waren economische drijfveren uiteindelijk doorslaggevend voor de oprichting, de bedrijfsactiviteiten en het uiteindelijk opheffen van de vier mijnbouw- en exploratiebedrijven. Uiteindelijk was geen enkel bedrijf in staat winstgevend te opereren in het hoge noorden. Kruse bestudeerde de geschiedenis van de bedrijven Spitzbergen Coal & Trading Co., Spitzbergen Mining & Exploration Syndicate, Northern Exploration Co. en Scottish Spitsbergen Syndicate. Ze onderzocht hoe en waarom deze bedrijven geïnteresseerd raakten in Spitsbergen, welke activiteiten ze ontplooiden in het poolgebied, waarom ze uiteindelijk werden opgegeven en welke gevolgen hun activiteiten hadden op enerzijds de lokale natuurlijke omgeving en anderzijds op de grotere politieke en economische context. Kruses onderzoek maakt deel uit van het Internationaal Pooljaar project LASHIPA (Large-Scale Historical Exploitation of Polar Areas). Het bronmateriaal komt voort uit zowel archeologisch veldwerk op Spitsbergen als uit intensief historisch onderzoek in diverse internationale archieven. De archeologische component was zeer belangrijk omdat resterend materiaal uit die tijd tot nog toe slecht bestudeerd en onbegrepen is.

An integral method for assessing geomorphological landscape qualities is presented, to be used in environmental impact assessments. Five groups of landform functions are distinguished in the Netherlands, an area of low relief: orientation functions, information functions, ordering functions, regulation functions and carriage functions. The assessment of landform functions is related to topographical, morphodynamic and chronological catenae. For each group of functions different evaluation criteria are selected. The method was applied in an environmental impact assessment of sand and gravel extraction sites in a fluvial lowland area in the Netherlands. A 1 : 50 000 analytical geomorphological map was used for the assessment.

Every year, large amounts of sand are extracted from the North Sea to meet the demands for construction activities. Potential ecological effects of these sand mining activities have to be examined and reported in so called Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA’s). In the Netherlands, the potential impacts of sand mining activities on tern populations often form an important topic in these EIA’s. Sand mining causes an increase in silt concentrations. This increase will influence the turbidity of the water, which may affect populations of visual hunting birds, such as terns.

Every year, large amounts of sand are extracted from the North Sea to meet the demands for construction activities. Potential ecological effects of these sand mining activities have to be examined and reported in so called Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA’s). In the Netherlands, the potential impacts of sand mining activities on tern populations often form an important topic in these EIA’s. Sand mining causes an increase in silt concentrations. This increase will influence the turbidity of the water, which may affect populations of visual hunting birds, such as terns.

Deze derde jaarrapportage over de monitoring in het kader van de bodemdaling onder de kwelder de Peazemerlannen bevat een overzicht t/m 2009 van de activiteiten en meetresultaten in de kwelder en zomerpolder van de Peazemerlannen en in het referentiegebied in de kwelderwerken in Groningen. De meeste gegevens worden weergegeven vanaf 2007, het startjaar van de gaswinning.

Deze derde jaarrapportage over de monitoring in het kader van de bodemdaling onder de kwelder de Peazemerlannen bevat een overzicht t/m 2009 van de activiteiten en meetresultaten in de kwelder en zomerpolder van de Peazemerlannen en in het referentiegebied in de kwelderwerken in Groningen. De meeste gegevens worden weergegeven vanaf 2007, het startjaar van de gaswinning.

In het stroomgebied van de Geul wordt al sinds de Middeleeuwen intensieve mijnbouw bedreven. Als gevolg van transport en hersedimentatie van bodemmateriaal dat rijk is aan zware metalen en het "lekken" van zware metalen uit de afvalbergen van de mijnen in België komen ook nu nog verhoogde concentraties aan zware metalen voor in de Geul. Dit rapport gaat in op de vraag in hoeverre deze verhoogde concentraties leiden tot een significante bijdrage aan de totale afvoer van de Maas.

In de Lausitz, in het oosten van Duitsland, ruim honderd kilometer ten zuiden van Berlijn bevinden zich bruinkoolmijnen. Het integreren van landschapsnarratie met het landschappelijk en ecologisch benaderen van landschapsherstel als uitgangspunt voor het ontwerpen aan voormalige bruinkoolmijnen in de Lausitz. Dat is de inzet van de masterstudie, waarover in dit artikel verslag wordt gedaan

In het Zand- en kleiwinningsplan Gelderland kondigt de provincie de instelling van een Provinciaal Kwaliteitsteam Ontgrondingen aan, dat werkende weg een eigen methodiek zal ontwikkelen. Inmiddels bestaat dit kwaliteitsteam 3 jaar en heeft 16 adviezen uitgebracht. In dit rapport staat een evaluatie van de kwaliteit van de werkwijze en van de adviezen van het Provinciaal Kwaliteitsteam Ontgrondingen centraal. Geconcludeerd wordt dat de werkwijze en adviezen volstaan, maar dat zij verder kunnen worden geprofessionaliseerd. Dit rapport biedt handvatten aan de provincie om die professionalisering verder vorm te geven.

In het Zand- en kleiwinningsplan Gelderland kondigt de provincie de instelling van een Provinciaal Kwaliteitsteam Ontgrondingen aan, dat werkende weg een eigen methodiek zal ontwikkelen. Inmiddels bestaat dit kwaliteitsteam 3 jaar en heeft 16 adviezen uitgebracht. In dit rapport staat een evaluatie van de kwaliteit van de werkwijze en van de adviezen van het Provinciaal Kwaliteitsteam Ontgrondingen centraal. Geconcludeerd wordt dat de werkwijze en adviezen volstaan, maar dat zij verder kunnen worden geprofessionaliseerd. Dit rapport biedt handvatten aan de provincie om die professionalisering verder vorm te geven.

Process streams with high concentrations of metals and sulfate are characteristic for the mining and metallurgical industries. This study aims to selectively recover nickel from a nickel-iron-containing solution at pH 5.0 using a single stage bioreactor that simultaneously combines low pH sulfate reduction and metal-sulfide formation. The results show that nickel was selectively precipitated in the bioreactor at pH 5.0 and the precipitates consisted of >or=83% of the nickel content. The nickel-iron precipitates were partly crystalline and had a metal/sulfur ratio of 1, suggesting these precipitates were NiS and FeS. Experiments focusing on nickel recovery at pH 5.0 and 5.5 reached a recovery of >99.9%, resulting in a nickel effluent concentration