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[Display omitted] Modulating the immunosuppressive tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is considered a promising strategy for cancer treatment. However, effectively modulating the immunosuppressive TIME within hypoxic zones remains a significant challenge. In this work, we developed a hypoxia-responsive amphiphilic drug carrier using boron-dipyrromethene (BODIPY) dye-modified chitosan (CsB), and then fabricated a hypoxia-targeted nanotheranostic system, named CsBPNs, through self-assembly of CsB and pexidartinib (5-((5-Chloro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3- b ]pyridin-3-yl)methyl)-N-((6-(trifluoromethyl)pyridin-3-yl)methyl), PLX3397), an immunotherapeutic drug targeting tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), for synergistic photothermal/immunotherapy and hypoxia imaging. CsBPNs demonstrated uniform size, good stability, and hypoxia-switchable fluorescence and photothermal effects, enabling deep penetration and hypoxia imaging capacities in three-dimensional tumor cell spheres and tumor tissues. In vitro and in vivo experiments showed that CsBPNs under laser irradiation promoted TAMs repolarization, reversed the immunosuppressive TIME, and enhanced the therapeutic outcome of PLX3397 in solid tumors by facilitating deep delivery into hypoxic regions and synergistic photothermal therapy. This work provides a new strategy for detecting and modulating the immunosuppressive TIME in hypoxic zones, potentially enabling more precise and effective photo-immunotherapy in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanoparticle-based therapies represent a transformative approach to managing gynecological cancers, offering targeted treatment strategies that minimize harm to healthy tissues while maximizing therapeutic efficacy. Despite their potential, implementing these advanced treatments in Africa is needed by a complex interplay of technological, economic, regulatory, and ethical challenges. This paper examines the current landscape of nanoparticle-based therapies, identifying critical barriers to their adoption, including inadequate infrastructure, high costs, and insufficient regulatory frameworks. Technological deficiencies manifest as a need for advanced nanoparticle synthesis, delivery, and diagnostics equipment, impeding research and clinical applications. Economically, the high production costs of nanoparticles, compounded by limited access to advanced diagnostic and treatment facilities, create significant financial barriers for healthcare systems and patients alike. Additionally, the regulatory environment needs to be more cohesive, characterized by a lack of established protocols and expertise to evaluate the unique properties of nanomedicines. However, opportunities for advancement exist through focused research and development initiatives. Targeted drug delivery systems, early detection methods, and immunotherapy integration are promising avenues to enhance treatment outcomes. Collaborative partnerships between African institutions and international research entities, alongside public–private collaborations, could bolster local capabilities in nanomedicine. To facilitate the integration of nanoparticle-based therapies, African governments must prioritize funding for nanomedicine research, create robust regulatory frameworks, and ensure equitable access to these innovative treatments. A concerted effort involving policy reforms, investment, and collaboration is essential for overcoming existing barriers and realizing the full potential of nanoparticle-based therapies in improving health outcomes for gynecological cancer patients across Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid development of nanotechnology during the last two decades has created new opportunities to design and generate more advanced nanotheranostics with diversified capabilities for diagnosis, drug delivery, and treatment response monitoring in a single platform. To date, several approaches have been employed in order to develop nanotheranostics. The purpose of this review is to briefly discuss the key components of nanotheranostic systems, to present the conventional and upcoming imaging and therapeutic modalities that employ nanotheranostic systems, and to evaluate recent progress in the field of cancer nanotheranostic systems in the past five years (2020–2024). Special attention is focused on the design of cancer nanotheranostic systems, their composition, specificity, potential for multimodal imaging and therapy, and in vitro and in vivo characterization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality among women worldwide, with bone being the most common site of all metastatic breast cancer. Bone metastases are often associated with pain and skeletal-related events (SREs), indicating poor prognosis and poor quality of life. Most current therapies for breast cancer bone metastasis primarily serve palliative purposes, focusing on pain management, mitigating the risk of bone-related complications, and inhibiting tumor progression. The emergence of nanodelivery systems offers novel insights and potential solutions for the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer-related bone metastasis. This article reviews the recent advancements and innovative applications of nanodrug delivery systems in the context of breast cancer bone metastasis and explores future directions in nanotheranostics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanotheranostics, combining photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), can transform precision cancer treatment by integrating diagnosis and therapy into a single platform. This review highlights recent advances in nanomaterials, drug delivery systems, and stimuli-responsive mechanisms for effective PTT and PDT. Multifunctional nanoparticles enable targeted delivery, multimodal imaging, and controlled drug release, overcoming the challenges posed by tumor microenvironments. Emerging approaches such as hybrid therapies and immune activation further enhance therapeutic efficacy. This paper discusses the limitations of nanotheranostics, including synthesis complexity and limited tissue penetration, and explores future directions toward biocompatible, scalable, and clinically translatable solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanotheranostics, combining photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT), can transform precision cancer treatment by integrating diagnosis and therapy into a single platform. This review highlights recent advances in nanomaterials, drug delivery systems, and stimuli-responsive mechanisms for effective PTT and PDT. Multifunctional nanoparticles enable targeted delivery, multimodal imaging, and controlled drug release, overcoming the challenges posed by tumor microenvironments. Emerging approaches such as hybrid therapies and immune activation further enhance therapeutic efficacy. This paper discusses the limitations of nanotheranostics, including synthesis complexity and limited tissue penetration, and explores future directions toward biocompatible, scalable, and clinically translatable solutions.

For more than two decades, nanoparticles have attracted a great deal of attention from researchers and developers. When properly designed, vectorized nanoparticles represent high-value-added tools with potentially invaluable properties in a number of areas, including biology, biotechnology, and medicine owing to their exceptional physico-chemical properties, especially resulting from their high surface area, high loading capacity, and nanoscale size. Smart design and building of nanoparticles through appropriate surface chemistry and functionalization provide a material that possesses multifunctional capabilities, able to specifically interact with a selected target, release a compound in a controlled and sustained way, and overcome, if desired, biological barriers such as the blood–brain barrier or lung barriers of interest. Unique constructions have thus opened up original and innovative possibilities in biotechnological and biomedical fields such as imaging, biosensors, rapid diagnostics, drug delivery, medical implants, and tissue engineering. This article briefly describes the main types of nanoparticles that have been developed and their advantages and disadvantages depending on the intended application, and highlights some remarkable results achieved recently in the biomedical field. Certain dangers or fears regarding their use in human and animal therapy or for users have been mentioned. Finally, conclusions and future perspectives are provided.

Abstract Nanotheranostics, an amalgamation of therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities at the nanoscale, is revolutionizing personalized medicine. Polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs) stand at the forefront of this arena, offering a multifaceted approach to treat complex diseases such as cancer. This review explores the recent advancements in PDCs, highlighting their design principles, working mechanisms, and the therapeutic applications. We discuss the incorporation of imaging agents into PDCs that allow for real-time monitoring of drug delivery and treatment efficacy. With the aim of improving patient care, the review examines how PDCs enable targeted drug delivery, minimize side effects, and provide valuable diagnostic data, hence enhancing the precision of medical interventions. We also address the challenges facing the clinical translation of PDCs, such as scalability, regulatory hurdles, and cost-effectiveness, providing a comprehensive outlook on the future of nanotheranostics in patient management.

Nanotheranostics, an amalgamation of therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities at the nanoscale, is revolutionizing personalized medicine. Polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs) stand at the forefront of this arena, offering a multifaceted approach to treat complex diseases such as cancer. This review explores the recent advancements in PDCs, highlighting their design principles, working mechanisms, and the therapeutic applications. We discuss the incorporation of imaging agents into PDCs that allow for real-time monitoring of drug delivery and treatment efficacy. With the aim of improving patient care, the review examines how PDCs enable targeted drug delivery, minimize side effects, and provide valuable diagnostic data, hence enhancing the precision of medical interventions. We also address the challenges facing the clinical translation of PDCs, such as scalability, regulatory hurdles, and cost-effectiveness, providing a comprehensive outlook on the future of nanotheranostics in patient management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mainstay behind Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unknown due to the elusive pathophysiology of the disease. Beta-amyloid and phosphorylated Tau is still widely incorporated in various research studies while studying AD. However, they are not sufficient. Therefore, many scientists and researchers have dug into AD studies to deliver many innovations in this field. Many novel biomarkers, such as phosphoglycerate-dehydrogenase, clusterin, microRNA, and a new peptide ratio (Aβ37/Aβ42) in cerebral-spinal fluid, plasma glial-fibrillary-acidic-protein, and lipid peroxidation biomarkers, are mushrooming. They are helping scientists find breakthroughs and substantiating their research on the early detection of AD. Neurovascular unit dysfunction in AD is a significant discovery that can help us understand the relationship between neuronal activity and cerebral blood flow. These new biomarkers are promising and can take these AD studies to another level. There have also been big steps forward in diagnosing and finding AD. One example is self-administered-gerocognitive-examination, which is less expensive and better at finding AD early on than mini-mental-state-examination. Quantum brain sensors and electrochemical biosensors are innovations in the detection field that must be explored and incorporated into the studies. Finally, novel innovations in AD studies like nanotheranostics are the future of AD treatment, which can not only diagnose and detect AD but also offer treatment. Non-pharmacological strategies to treat AD have also yielded interesting results. Our literature review spans from 1957 to 2022, capturing research and trends in the field over six decades. This review article is an update not only on the recent advances in the search for credible biomarkers but also on the newer detection techniques and therapeutic approaches targeting AD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current works explores the optical contrast property and nanaotheranostic capabilities of the rare earth based Upconversion nanoparticles. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has been used to explore the particles ability to increase contrast and improve signal intensity. Photo thermal OCT, a function extension of OCT has been used to gauge the photo thermal potential of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles successfully improved contrast and information from the deeper layers of the sample. The particles also showed excellent capability for use as photo thermal agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autophagy and mitophagy pose unresolved challenges in understanding the pathology of diabetic heart condition (DHC), which encompasses a complex range of cardiovascular issues linked to diabetes and associated cardiomyopathies. Despite significant progress in reducing mortality rates from cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), heart failure remains a major cause of increased morbidity among diabetic patients. These cellular processes are essential for maintaining cellular balance and removing damaged or dysfunctional components, and their involvement in the development of diabetic heart disease makes them attractive targets for diagnosis and treatment. While a variety of conventional diagnostic and therapeutic strategies are available, DHC continues to present a significant challenge. Point-of-care diagnostics, supported by nanobiosensing techniques, offer a promising alternative for these complex scenarios. Although conventional medications have been widely used in DHC patients, they raise several concerns regarding various physiological aspects. Modern medicine places great emphasis on the application of nanotechnology to target autophagy and mitophagy in DHC, offering a promising approach to deliver drugs beyond the limitations of traditional therapies. This article aims to explore the potential connections between autophagy, mitophagy and DHC, while also discussing the promise of nanotechnology-based theranostic interventions that specifically target these molecular pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Polymeric nanotheranostics have emerged as promising vehicles for diagnosis‐cum‐targeted therapy in solid tumors, offering precise delivery of therapeutic agents at the site of solid tumors and minimizing systemic side effects. This article summarizes the latest developments in using polymeric nanoparticles for specific treatment strategies in solid tumors. It explores the various methods these nanoparticles utilize for targeted medication delivery. This includes passive targeting through the amplified permeability and retention effect, active targeting via interactions between ligands and receptors, and stimuli‐responsive release mechanisms such as pH, temperature, and enzymatic triggers. Furthermore, we highlight recent developments in stimuli‐responsive polymeric nanoparticles, which enable controlled drug release in response to specific cues in the tumor microenvironment, thus enhancing therapeutic efficacy. Also, we focus on the theranostic polymeric nanoparticles, which are used for diagnosing and treating solid tumors. We discuss critical regulatory considerations and the regulatory bodies of different countries that regulate nanomedicines' safety, efficacy, quality, and manufacturing processes. Overall, this review provides insights into the latest innovations in polymeric nanoparticles for targeted therapy in solid tumors, elucidating their mechanisms of action, stimuli‐responsive properties, and regulatory pathways, which collectively contribute to developing effective and safe nanomedicines for cancer treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lung cancer is the leading cause of death in cancer across the globe. To minimize these deaths, the replacement of traditional chemotherapy with novel strategies is significant. We have developed a nanotheranostic approach using silver nanoparticles for imaging and treatment. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are fabricated by chemical reduction method. The formulation of AgNPs was confirmed by different characterization techniques like stability test, UV–Visible spectroscopy, Confocal Raman Spectroscopy, and Energy-Dispersive X-ray analysis. Further, AgNPs are coated with poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) and then loaded with paclitaxel (Pac). Then the drug-loaded PLGA-coated AgNPs were characterized for size and zeta potential measurement by zetasizer, surface morphology study by atomic force microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and release kinetics study. The imaging and anticancer properties of these nanoformulations are investigated using lung cancer cell lines. The results proved that the particles are in the nanometer range with smooth surface morphology. Moreover, the drug-loaded NPs showed a sustained release of the drug for a longer period of time. Further the formulations showed imaging property with greater anticancer efficacy. Thus, the results suggest the effective use of these nanoformulation in both lung cancer imaging and treatment using a simple and efficient approach. Schematic representation showing the mechanism of theranostic effect of PLGA coated Pac loaded silver nanoparticles. First silver nanoparticles were formulated then loaded with Pac and coated with PLGA. The formulated nanoparticles will enter into cells by the process of endocytosis and there it will release the drug and the silver. The drug will induce cytotoxicity whereas the silver nanoparticles will be used for imaging purpose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) have been widely studied for biomedical applications due to their excellent properties, such as good biocompatibility, degradability, interlayer ion exchangeability, high loading capacity, pH‐responsive release, and large specific surface area. Furthermore, the flexibility in the structural composition and ease of surface modification of LDHs makes it possible to develop specifically functionalized LDHs to meet the needs of different applications. In this review, the recent advances of LDHs for biomedical applications, which include LDH‐based drug delivery systems, LDHs for cancer diagnosis and therapy, tissue engineering, coatings, functional membranes, and biosensors, are comprehensively discussed. From these various biomedical research fields, it can be seen that there is great potential and possibility for the use of LDHs in biomedical applications. However, at the same time, it must be recognized that the actual clinical translation of LDHs is still very limited. Therefore, the current limitations of related research on LDHs are discussed by combining limited examples of actual clinical translation with requirements for clinical translation of biomaterials. Finally, an outlook on future research related to LDHs is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanoparticles (NPs) are extremely important tools to overcome the limitations imposed by therapeutic agents and effectively overcome biological barriers. Smart designed/tuned nanostructures can be extremely effective for cancer treatment. The selection and design of nanostructures and the adjustment of size and surface properties are extremely important, especially for some precision treatments and drug delivery (DD). By designing specific methods, an important era can be opened in the biomedical field for personalized and precise treatment. Here, we focus on advances in the selection and design of nanostructures, as well as on how the structure and shape, size, charge, and surface properties of nanostructures in biological fluids (BFs) can be affected. We discussed the applications of specialized nanostructures in the therapy of head and neck cancer (HNC), which is a difficult and aggressive type of cancer to treat, to give an impetus for novel treatment approaches in this field. We also comprehensively touched on the shortcomings, current trends, and future perspectives when using nanostructures in the treatment of cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

MXenes are two-dimensional transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides that have become important materials in nanotechnology because of their remarkable mechanical, electrical, and thermal characteristics. This review emphasizes how crucial MXene conjugates are for several biomedical applications, especially in the field of cancer. These two-dimensional (2D) nanoconjugates with photothermal, chemotherapeutic, and photodynamic activities have demonstrated promise for highly effective and noninvasive anticancer therapy. MXene conjugates, with their distinctive optical capabilities, have been employed for bioimaging and biosensing, and their excellent light-to-heat conversion efficiency makes them perfect biocompatible and notably proficient nanoscale agents for photothermal applications. The synthesis and characterization of MXenes provide a framework for an in-depth understanding of various fabrication techniques and their importance in the customized formation of MXene conjugates. The following sections explore MXene-based conjugates for nanotheranostics and demonstrate their enormous potential for biomedical applications. Nanoconjugates, such as polymers, metals, graphene, hydrogels, biomimetics, quantum dots, and radio conjugates, exhibit unique properties that can be used for various therapeutic and diagnostic applications in the field of cancer nanotheranostics. An additional layer of understanding into the safety concerns of MXene nanoconjugates is provided by detailing their toxicity viewpoints. Furthermore, the review concludes by addressing the opportunities and challenges in the clinical translation of MXene-based nanoconjugates, emphasizing their potential in real-world medical practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a leading cause of the life-threatening cardiovascular disease (CVD), creating an urgent need for efficient, biocompatible therapeutics for diagnosis and treatment. Biomimetic nanomedicines (bNMs) are moving closer to fulfilling this need, pushing back the frontier of nano-based drug delivery systems design. This review seeks to outline how these nanomedicines (NMs) might work to diagnose and treat atherosclerosis, to trace the trajectory of their development to date and in the coming years, and to provide a foundation for further discussion about atherosclerotic theranostics.

Nanoparticles, especially gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) have gained increasing interest in biomedical applications. Used for disease prevention, diagnosis and therapies, its significant advantages in therapeutic efficacy and safety have been the main target of interest. Its application in immune system prevention, stability in physiological environments and cell membranes, low toxicity and optimal bioperformances are critical to the success of engineered nanomaterials. Its unique optical properties are great attractors. Recently, several physical and chemical methods for coating these NPs have been widely used. Biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, peptides, antibodies, proteins, carbohydrates and biopolymers, among others, have been widely used in coatings of Au NPs for various biomedical applications, thus increasing their biocompatibility while maintaining their biological functions. This review mainly presents a general and representative view of the different types of coatings and Au NP functionalization using various biomolecules, strategies and functionalization mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Low antibiotic utilization and inability to achieve real‐time monitoring of pathological status and treatment processes often result in unsatisfactory performance against bacterial infection. Developing a targeting antibacterial nanoprobe combining imaging with stimulus‐response antibiotic release is a promising strategy to precisely recognize lesions and enhance therapeutic efficacy for bacterial infection. In this work, we report a pH‐responsive theragnostic nanoplatform for targeted imaging and local drug release at the bacterial infection site. The nanoplatform consists of the core‐shell structure with persistent luminescence nanoparticles (PLNPs) as the core for autofluorescence‐free luminescence imaging and zeolitic imidazolate framework‐8 (ZIF‐8) as the shell to act as a carrier for antibiotics cefazolin. The core‐shell nanostructure is further conjugated with folic acid to facilitate the uptake and accumulation of the nanoparticles, and realize the autofluorescence‐free targeted imaging of the infection site. The acidic microenvironment at the bacterial infection site enables ZIF‐8 to decompose for specific drug release improve the performance in bacterial infection treatment. The developed pH‐responsive nanotheranostic probe is promising for autofluorescence‐free targeted imaging and therapy of bacterial infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, cancer is one of the deadliest diseases, needing a meticulous diagnosis and targeted treatment plan to achieve an initial prognosis, followed by precision and optimization in treatment. Nonselective targeting, difficulty in accurately monitoring treatment end-results, serious drug side-effects, and severity of disease resulting in metastasis are the key flaws of traditional techniques. Nanotechnology and nanoparticles possess special features to completely transform the field of diagnosis and treatment of cancer. A holistic strategy that employs a dual function of diagnosis and therapy while utilizing a nanocarrier is referred to as a nanotheranostic. The nanotheranostic framework was created to surmount a variety of biological and physiological obstacles, effectively delivering the cargo to the intended target location, while simultaneously facilitating therapeutic intervention, surveillance, and validation to demonstrate improved treatment effectiveness. As a result, a nanotheranostic platform can be useful for targeted drug delivery, release, and distribution assessment, in addition to patient classification and survival. Nanotheranostic techniques also lead to reduced drug side-effects compared with conventional therapies. In this review, we outline current studies on nanotheranostics and their advantages over conventional treatment strategies, the applications and challenges/limitations of nanotheranostics, and the mechanisms of targeting in breast and prostate cancers.

Nanotechnology has become integral in the improvement of methodology used to identify and treat various cancers. Nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit unique features that enhance sensitivity and selectivity and subsequently reduce the time required to detect early-stage cancer through biomarkers. NPs improve the therapeutic efficiency of anticancer agents when compared with conventional methods, such as chemotherapy, and thereby eliminate toxicity and side effects, which helps improve the stability, solubility, half-life, and tumor aggregation of an anticancer drug. This also helps expedite the treatment cycle by enabling a real-time assessment, quickly circumventing various biological barriers, improving vectorization and delivery, overcoming drug resistance, and developing various paths for the manufacturing of new synthetic vaccines. Nanomedicine has usually involved studies on solid-state cancers because it can increase the cell permeability and retention effect experienced within the tumor areas to improve regional accumulation and efficacy. Nanomedicine for leukemia and lymphoma is addressed differently from solid-state cancers because of the absence of the enhanced permeability and retention effect.Nevertheless, nanomedicine has enabled the development of various modern innovative techniques for simple and noninvasive procedures for prior analysis of cancers with subsequent diffuse tumor treatment. In this assessment, we consider various unique constructs on NPs that can predominantly enhance therapeutic treatment over diffused tumors by increasing control, from preclinical testing to medicinal trials. Nanotechnology combines nanodiagnostics, nanotherapeutics, and nanotheranostics for improved imaging and diagnoses of early stage cancers. Furthermore, the primacy of nanoplatforms has been discussed for an invaluable position in this blended method. There are many types of NPs, such as organic, inorganic, and hybrid NPs. The minute size of NPs makes them ideal for intracellular uptake, and the large surface area ratio allows functional interactions with various compounds. This review also covers targeting cancerous cells via inducing lysosomal autophagy using gold NPs.

Lymph node metastasis (LNM) significantly impacts the prognosis of cancer patients. Despite significant advancements in diagnostic techniques and treatment modalities, clinical challenges continue to persist in the realm of LNM. These include difficulties in early diagnosis, limited treatment efficacy, and potential side effects and injuries associated with treatment. Nanotheranostics, a field within nanotechnology, seamlessly integrates diagnostic and therapeutic functionalities. Its primary goal is to provide precise and effective disease diagnosis and treatment simultaneously. The development of nanotheranostics for LNM offers a promising solution for the stratified management of patients with LNM and promotes the advancement of personalized medicine. This review introduces the mechanisms of LNM and challenges in its diagnosis and treatment. Furthermore, it demonstrates the advantages and development potential of nanotheranostics, focuses on the challenges nanotheranostics face in its application, and provides an outlook on future trends. We consider nanotheranostics a promising strategy to improve clinical effectiveness and efficiency as well as the prognosis of cancer patients with LNM.

Cancer is one of the most fatal diseases globally, however, advancement in the field of nanoscience specifically novel nanomaterials with nano-targeting of cancer cell lines has revolutionized cancer diagnosis and therapy and has thus attracted the attention of researchers of related fields. Carbon Dots (CDs)–C-based nanomaterials–have emerged as highly favorable candidates for simultaneous bioimaging and therapy during cancer nano-theranostics due to their exclusive innate FL and theranostic characteristics exhibited in different preclinical results. Recently, different transition metal-doped CDs have enhanced the effectiveness of CDs manifold in biomedical applications with minimum toxicity. The use of group-11 (Cu, Ag and Au) with CDs in this direction have recently gained the attention of researchers because of their encouraging results. This review summarizes the current developments of group-11 (Cu, Ag and Au) CDs for early diagnosis and therapy of cancer including their nanocomposites, nanohybrids and heterostructures etc. All The manuscript highlights imaging applications (FL, photoacoustic, MRI etc.) and therapeutic applications (phototherapy, photodynamic, multimodal etc.) of Cu-, Ag- and Au-doped CDs reported as nanotheranostic agents for cancer treatment. Sources of CDs and metals alogwith applications to give a comparative analysis have been given in the tabulated form at the end of manuscript. Further, future prospects and challenges have also been discussed.

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a serious microvascular consequence of diabetes mellitus (DM), posing an encumbrance to public health worldwide. Control over the onset and progress of DN depend heavily on early detection and effective treatment. DN is a major contributor to end-stage renal disease, and a complete cure is yet to be achieved with currently available options. Though some therapeutic molecules have exhibited promise in treating DN complications, their poor solubility profile, low bioavailability, poor permeation, high therapeutic dose and associated toxicity, and low patient compliance apprehend their clinical usefulness. Recent research has indicated nano-systems as potential theranostic platforms displaying futuristic promise in the diagnosis and treatment of DN. Early and accurate diagnosis, site-specific delivery and retention by virtue of ligand conjugation, and improved pharmacokinetic profile are amongst the major advantages of nano-platforms, defining their superiority. Thus, the emergence of nanoparticles has offered fresh approaches to the possible diagnostic and therapeutic strategies regarding DN. The present review corroborates an updated overview of different types of nanocarriers regarding potential approaches for the diagnosis and therapy of DN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a leading cause of the life-threatening cardiovascular disease (CVD), creating an urgent need for efficient, biocompatible therapeutics for diagnosis and treatment. Biomimetic nanomedicines (bNMs) are moving closer to fulfilling this need, pushing back the frontier of nano-based drug delivery systems design. This review seeks to outline how these nanomedicines (NMs) might work to diagnose and treat atherosclerosis, to trace the trajectory of their development to date and in the coming years, and to provide a foundation for further discussion about atherosclerotic theranostics. This review summerize various biomimetic nanomedicines for precise atherosclerosis diagnosis and treatment, which is vital for the development of atherosclerotic theranostic agents. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oxidative stress is a deteriorating condition that arises due to an imbalance between the reactive oxygen species and the antioxidant system or defense of the body. The key reasons for the development of such conditions are malfunctioning of various cell organelles, such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complex, as well as physical and mental disturbances. The nervous system has a relatively high utilization of oxygen, thus making it particularly vulnerable to oxidative stress, which eventually leads to neuronal atrophy and death. This advances the development of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration-associated disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, dementia, and other memory disorders. It is imperative to treat such conditions as early as possible before they worsen and progress to irreversible damage. Oxidative damage can be negated by two mechanisms: improving the cellular defense system or providing exogenous antioxidants. Natural antioxidants can normally handle such oxidative stress, but they have limited efficacy. The valuable features of nanoparticles and/or nanomaterials, in combination with antioxidant features, offer innovative nanotheranostic tools as potential therapeutic modalities. Hence, this review aims to represent novel therapeutic approaches like utilizing nanoparticles with antioxidant properties and nanotheranostics as delivery systems for potential therapeutic applications in various neuroinflammation- and neurodegeneration-associated disease conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, cancer is one of the deadliest diseases, needing a meticulous diagnosis and targeted treatment plan to achieve an initial prognosis, followed by precision and optimization in treatment. Nonselective targeting, difficulty in accurately monitoring treatment end-results, serious drug side-effects, and severity of disease resulting in metastasis are the key flaws of traditional techniques. Nanotechnology and nanoparticles possess special features to completely transform the field of diagnosis and treatment of cancer. A holistic strategy that employs a dual function of diagnosis and therapy while utilizing a nanocarrier is referred to as a nanotheranostic. The nanotheranostic framework was created to surmount a variety of biological and physiological obstacles, effectively delivering the cargo to the intended target location, while simultaneously facilitating therapeutic intervention, surveillance, and validation to demonstrate improved treatment effectiveness. As a result, a nanotheranostic platform can be useful for targeted drug delivery, release, and distribution assessment, in addition to patient classification and survival. Nanotheranostic techniques also lead to reduced drug side-effects compared with conventional therapies. In this review, we outline current studies on nanotheranostics and their advantages over conventional treatment strategies, the applications and challenges/limitations of nanotheranostics, and the mechanisms of targeting in breast and prostate cancers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In oncology, tremendous research has been conducted on the use of alternative minimally invasive techniques for cancer treatment and diagnosis. The use of biophotonic techniques as a standalone treatment or together with conventional imaging techniques has gained interest among researchers in recent years, while biophotonic therapies such as photothermal and photodynamic therapies tend to bring the use of non-ionizing radiation in therapy back into the spotlight due to the progressive development of optical instrumentation, enhancement agents, molecular probes, light sources and nanocarriers. Thus, the coupling of non-ionizing with ionizing radiation (IR) and the combination of nanomedicine with nuclear medicine procedures are considered to be revolutionary strategies to optimize the therapeutic efficacy of biophotonic modalities and to develop theranostic applications for the better diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Recently, the low-intensity Cerenkov light emitted by tissues as a byproduct of the IR–biostructure interaction has been suggested as an effective internal light source that can trigger phototherapy and guide radiotherapy dosimetry using Cerenkov imaging. This review also provides an overview of in vitro and in vivo studies regarding the use of Cerenkov radiation produced by X-rays or radionucleotides and combined with nanoparticles as a hybrid method to induce enhanced photothermal and photodynamic therapies.

The existing diagnosis and treatment modalities have major limitations related to their precision and capability to understand several stages of disease development. A superior therapeutic system consists of a multifunctional approach in early diagnosis of the disease with a simultaneous progressive cure, using a precise medical approach towards complex treatment. These challenges can be addressed via nanotheranostics and explore suitable approaches to improve health care. Nanotechnology in combination with theranostics as an unconventional platform paved the way for developing novel strategies and modalities leading to diagnosis and therapy for complex disease conditions, ranging from acute to chronic levels. Among the metal nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles are being widely used for theranostics due to their inherent non-toxic nature and plasmonic properties. The unique optical and chemical properties of plasmonic metal nanoparticles along with theranostics have led to a promising era of plausible early detection of disease conditions, and they enable real-time monitoring with enhanced non-invasive or minimally invasive imaging of several ailments. This review aims to highlight the improvement and advancement brought to nanotheranostics by gold nanoparticles in the past decade. The clinical use of the metal nanoparticles in nanotheranostics is explained, along with the future perspectives on addressing the key applications related to diagnostics and therapeutics, respectively. The scope of gold nanoparticles and their realistic potential to design a sophisticated theranostic system is discussed in detail, along with their implications in clinical advancements which are the needs of the hour. The review concluded with the challenges, opportunities, and implications on translational potential of using gold nanoparticles in nanotheranostics.

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a serious microvascular consequence of diabetes mellitus (DM), posing an encumbrance to public health worldwide. Control over the onset and progress of DN depend heavily on early detection and effective treatment. DN is a major contributor to end-stage renal disease, and a complete cure is yet to be achieved with currently available options. Though some therapeutic molecules have exhibited promise in treating DN complications, their poor solubility profile, low bioavailability, poor permeation, high therapeutic dose and associated toxicity, and low patient compliance apprehend their clinical usefulness. Recent research has indicated nano-systems as potential theranostic platforms displaying futuristic promise in the diagnosis and treatment of DN. Early and accurate diagnosis, site-specific delivery and retention by virtue of ligand conjugation, and improved pharmacokinetic profile are amongst the major advantages of nano-platforms, defining their superiority. Thus, the emergence of nanoparticles has offered fresh approaches to the possible diagnostic and therapeutic strategies regarding DN. The present review corroborates an updated overview of different types of nanocarriers regarding potential approaches for the diagnosis and therapy of DN.

Alzheimer's is one of the most common neurodegenerative illnesses that affect brain cellular function. In this disease, the neurons in the brain are considered to be decaying steadily but consistently by the accumulation of amyloid mass, particularly the β-amyloids, amyloid proteins, and Tau proteins. The most responsible amyloid-proteins are amyloid-40 and amyloid-42, which have a high probability of accumulating in excess over the brain cell, interfering with normal brain cell function and triggering brain cell death. The advancement of pharmaceutical sciences leads to the development of Nanotheranostics technology, which may be used to diagnose and treat Alzheimer's. They are the colloidal nanoparticles functionalised with the therapeutic moiety as well as a diagnostic moiety. This article discusses the prognosis of Alzheimer's, various nanotheranostics approaches (nanoparticles, quantum dots, aptamers, dendrimers, etc), and their recent advancement in managing Alzheimer's. Also, various in-vitro and in-vivo diagnostic methodologies were discussed with respect to nanotheranostics. Describing the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's with respect to amyloid β in the prognosis of the disease Presenting the various nanotheranostics techniques for the detection and treatment of Alzheimer's disease Nanoparticles, Aptamers, and Dendrimers used as diagnostic and treatment entities In-vivo (MRI, OI) and In-vitro (STM, TRPS) diagnostic approaches for detecting Alzheimer's disease [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]