Search

How do we know when someone knows us? Does it matter whether the knower is a human or a machine? Following the theory of interpersonal knowledge, a between-subjects experiment investigated whether a doctor's incorporation of individualized knowledge about a patient's social or medical history enhances doctor-patient relationships in online conversations. Patients in this study conversed with either a human doctor, an AI doctor, or an AI-assisted human doctor. Following previous research, additional factors such as perceptions of effort, relational closeness, privacy intrusiveness, and the provision of privacy control were assessed. Results showed that an AI doctor enhanced patient satisfaction when it employed social individuation messages, which triggered perceptions of increased effort, but only when patients could activate privacy control. Perception of relational closeness with a human doctor and an AI-assisted human doctor did not seem to require social individuation and privacy control. The study concludes with implications for the theory of interpersonal knowledge and AI-mediated communication research, as well as practical implications for improving chatbot medical systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We previously showed that perceived effort during visually guided reaching was altered as task demand varied. Further, self-reported subjective fatigue correlated with perceived effort and reach performance under visually guided conditions. Memory-guided reaching often leads to performance deterioration and can provide insights about the planning and control of reach actions. It is unclear how perceived effort changes during memory-guided reaching and whether self-reported subjective fatigue is associated with perceived effort of memory-guided reaching. Twenty-three young adults performed reach actions under visually- and memory-guided conditions. Perceived effort, reaction time, and endpoint error increased significantly from the visually- to the memory-guided condition. Selfreported subjective fatigue was associated with perceived effort and reach distance error during memory-guided reaching; those with higher levels of fatigue reported greater perceived effort and tended to reach farther when visual information was not available. These findings establish a foundation to examine relationships between subjective fatigue, perceived effort, and reach control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: A recent study showed that cadence modulation during short eccentric cycling exercise affects oxygen consumption (...O2), muscular activity (EMG), and perception of effort (PE). This study examined the effect of cadence on ...O2, EMG, and PE during prolonged eccentric cycling and exercise-induced neuromuscular alterations. Methods: Twenty-two participants completed three sessions 2-3 wk apart: 1) determination of the maximal concentric peak power output, familiarization with eccentric cycling at two cadences (30 and 60 rpm at 60% peak power output), and neuromuscular testing procedure; 2) and 3) 30 min of eccentric cycling exercise at a cadence of 30 or 60 rpm. PE, cardiorespiratory parameters, and vastus lateralis and rectus femoris EMG were collected during exercise. The knee extensors' maximal voluntary contraction torque, the torque evoked by double stimulations at 100 Hz (Dt100) and 10 Hz (Dt10), and the voluntary activation level were evaluated before and after exercise. Results: ...O2, EMG, and PE were greater at 30 than 60 rpm (all P <0.05). Maximal voluntary contraction torque, evoked torque, and Dt10/Dt100 ratio decreased (all P < 0.01) without cadence effect (all P > 0.28). Voluntary activation level remained constant after both eccentric cycling exercises (P = 0.87). Conclusions: When performed at the same power output, eccentric cycling exercise at 30 rpm elicited a greater PE, EMG, and cardiorespiratory demands than pedaling at 60 rpm. Exercise-induced fatigability was similar in both eccentric cycling conditions without neural impairments, suggesting that eccentric cycling seemed to alter more specifically muscular function, such as the excitation-contraction coupling process. In a rehabilitation context, eccentric cycling at 60 rpm seems more appropriate because it will induce lower PE for similar strength loss compared with 30 rpm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to analyze the acute effect of mental fatigue on the maximum number of repetitions in a resistance exercise session with different intensities in resistance‐trained adults. Eighteen young men aged between 18 and 25 years old (age, 22.1 ± 2.0 years; body weight, 82.5 ± 6.6 kg; height, 177.4 ± 5.2 cm; half‐back squat 1‐RM, 106.7 ± 21.9 kg) were recruited for the study. Each participant performed two trials (i.e., control and mental fatigue) in a random and balanced order for 30‐min. The participants performed three sets of half back‐squat exercise to failure, with intensities of 50%, 70%, and 90% of 1RM with a passive recovery interval of 5‐min between sets. The intensity was randomized and counterbalanced, and the order was maintained in both conditions for the same subject. We assessed resistance training using the number of repetitions to failure and perceived effort and checked the mental fatigue subjectively and objectively. The participants in the mental fatigue condition presented a significantly increased perception of mental fatigue (p < 0.05) and reduced pupil diameter (p < 0.05). The number of repetitions were significantly lower for the 50 (p < 0.05) and 75% 1RM (p < 0.05) in the mental fatigue condition, but the 90% 1RM remained similar (p > 0.05). Also, the perceived effort showed significantly higher results for the 50 (p < 0.05) and 75% 1RM (p < 0.05) in the mental fatigue condition, but the 90% 1RM remained similar (p > 0.05). Then, this study showed that mental fatigue reduced resistance exercise performance for low‐ and mid‐intensity but not for high‐intensity. Highlights: Mental fatigue reduces the number of repetitions to failure during low‐ and moderate‐intensity resistance exercise.Mentally fatigued individuals experience a higher‐than‐normal perception of effort during low‐ and moderate‐intensity resistance exercise.Measuring mental fatigue immediately before a resistance exercise session might be a rapid and valuable tool to autoregulate the exercise intensity and/or volume of resistance training sessions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To examine the utility of differential ratings of perceived exertion (dRPE) for monitoring internal intensity and load in association football. Methods: Data were collected from 2 elite senior male football teams during 1 season (N = 55). External intensity and load data (duration × intensity) were collected during each training and match session using electronic performance and tracking systems. After each session, players rated their perceived breathlessness and leg-muscle exertion. Descriptive statistics were calculated to quantify how often players rated the 2 types of rating of perceived exertion differently (dRPEDIFF). In addition, the association between dRPEDIFF and external intensity and load was examined. First, the associations between single external variables and dRPEDIFF were analyzed using a mixed-effects logistic regression model. Second, the link between dRPEDIFF and session types with distinctive external profiles was examined using the Pearson chi-square test of independence. Results: On average, players rated their session perceived breathlessness and leg-muscle exertion differently in 22% of the sessions (range: 0%–64%). Confidence limits for the effect of single external variables on dRPEDIFF spanned across largely positive and negative values for all variables, indicating no conclusive findings. The analysis based on session type indicated that players differentiated more often in matches and intense training sessions, but there was no pattern in the direction of differentiation. Conclusions: The findings of this study provide no evidence supporting the utility of dRPE for monitoring internal intensity and load in football. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Post-stroke fatigue can manifest as both physical and mental fatigue. The Fatigue Scale for Motor and Cognitive Functions (FSMC) evaluates fatigue on the motor and cognitive domains separately, however, the psychometric properties of this measure in stroke have not been reported. OBJECTIVE: To determine the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and concurrent validity of the FSMC in chronic stroke. METHODS: Thirty-four participants with chronic stroke (55.26±12.27 years of age; 59.53±89.21 months post-stroke) completed the FSMC on two separate visits. Internal consistency and reliability of the FSMC were examined using Cronbach's alpha and two-way mixed effects intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), respectively. Correlation between the FSMC and the Fatigue Severity Scale and Visual Analog Scale-Fatigue was used to assess concurrent validity. RESULTS: Internal consistency was excellent (Cronbach's alpha > 0.9) and reliability was moderate to good (ICC = 0.72–0.81) for all FSMC scores. The FSMC demonstrated moderate to good concurrent validity with the Fatigue Severity Scale (ρ= 0.66–0.72) but only fair concurrent validity with the Visual Analog Scale-Fatigue (ρ= 0.37–0.44). CONCLUSION: The FSMC is a valid and reliable measure of post-stroke fatigue and may be a useful tool to examine physical fatigue and cognitive fatigue in chronic stroke. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Eccentric, compared to concentric exercise, is proposed to involve different neuro‐motor processing strategies and a higher level of mental demand. This study compared eccentric and concentric cycling at matched perceived effort and torque for the mental demand and related‐cortical activation patterns. Nineteen men (30 ± 6 years) performed four different 5‐min cycling conditions at 30 RPM on a semi‐recumbent isokinetic cycle ergometer: (1) concentric at a moderate perceived effort (23 on the CR100® scale) without torque feedback; (2) concentric and (3) eccentric at the same average torque produced in the first condition; and (4) eccentric at the same moderate perceived effort than the first concentric condition. The conditions two to four were randomized. After each condition, mental demand was monitored using the NASA Task Load Index scale. Changes in oxy‐(O2Hb) and deoxy‐(HHb) hemoglobin during exercise were measured over both prefrontal cortices and the right parietal lobe from a 15‐probe layout using a continuous‐wave NIRS system. Mental demand was significantly higher during eccentric compared to concentric cycling (+52%, p = 0.012) and when the exercise intensity was fixed by the torque rather than the perceived effort (+70%, p < 0.001). For both torque‐ or perceived effort‐matched exercises, O2Hb increased significantly (p < 0.001) in the left and right prefrontal cortices, and right parietal lobe, and HHb decreased in the left, and right, prefrontal cortices during eccentric compared to concentric cycling. This study supports that acute eccentric cycling, compared to concentric cycling, involves a higher mental demand, and frontoparietal network activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Isometric exercise (IE) and isometric wall squat (IWS) training have been shown to be effective methods of reducing arterial blood pressure. However, most IE interventions require methodologies and equipment that could present a barrier to participation. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effectiveness of an accessible RPE prescribed IWS intervention. Methods: Thirty normotensive and pre-hypertensive adults were randomly assigned to a control group or one of two 4-week home-based IWS intervention groups: the first group conducted IWS exercise where intensity was prescribed and monitored using RPE (RPE-EX), whilst the other used a previously validated HR prescription method (HR-EX). Resting and ambulatory heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) were measured pre- and post-intervention. Results: Minimum clinically important differences (MCID; − 5 mmHg) in SBP and/or DBP were shown in 100% of intervention participants. Statistically significant reductions were shown in resting seated BP (RPE-EX: SBP: − 9 ± 6, DBP: − 6 ± 4, MAP: − 6 ± 3 mmHg; HR-EX: SBP: − 14 ± 6, DBP: − 6 ± 4, MAP: − 8 ± 4 mmHg), supine BP (RPE-EX: SBP: − 8 (− 5), DBP: − 8 (− 7), MAP: − 8 (− 4) mmHg; HR-EX: SBP: − 5 (− 4), MAP − 5 (− 4) mmHg), and ambulatory SBP (RPE-EX: − 8 ± 6 mmHg; HR-EX: − 10 ± 4 mmHg) following the interventions. There were no statistically significant differences between intervention groups in the magnitude of BP reduction. Conclusion: RPE prescribed IWS exercise can provide an effective and more accessible method for reducing BP at home, providing reductions comparable to the current HR-based prescription method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sit-to-stand (STS) is a mechanically demanding task. Little is known about the energy expenditure (EE) and the perceived effort of patients with stroke during STS. Objectives: The objectives of our study were to assess the perceived effort and EE of patients with stroke when moving from STS and to determine whether an association between actual energy expended and patient-perceived effort exists. Method: This descriptive cross-sectional pilot study assessed participants’ EE and perceived effort during STS, with a triaxial accelerometer and the modified Borg scale (MBS), respectively. Results: The team screened 428 individuals for potential inclusion, with nine participants (n = 5 female, 55.5%) meeting the criteria for our pilot study. Participants had a mean age of 52.77 (standard deviation [SD] ± 11.33) years, the majority had a haemorrhagic stroke (n = 6, 66.6%) and left hemiplegia (n = 6, 66.6%), and they were assessed 9.11 (SD ± 6.57) days post-stroke. The mean EE during STS was 2.82 (SD ± 1.9) kCal. Most participants (n = 7, 77.77%) perceived STS as more than a ‘moderate’ effort on the MBS. The correlation coefficient between the metabolic equivalent of task (METs) and MBS was r = 0.34 (p = 0.38). Conclusion: Our study found a fair positive correlation between METs and MBS for patients with stroke during STS. Clinical implications: The increased EE shown can be a key point for rehabilitation to lessen the extent of EE during STS. Further research is warranted.

The aim was to evaluate the concurrent validity and reliability of the Resistance Intensity Scale for Exercise [RISE], which uses verbal descriptors, to quantify the intensity in velocity-based training with elastic bands. Eighteen trained volunteers performed parallel squats at maximum speed at 40%, 55%, 70%, and 85%1RM in four sessions, two for familiarization and two for reliability. Each set was stopped at a 10% intra-set velocity loss. Participants reported the perceived effort (easy-low-moderate-hard-maximal) at the first and last repetition. The concurrent validation was conducted with external load (i.e., mean propulsive velocity, weight, repetitions, and maximum power) and internal load parameters (i.e., heart rate). Participants' relative strength was calculated to assess its influence on the dependent variable. Acceptable concurrent validity and reliability (ICC>0.77, CV

Group projects are expected in contemporary engineering curricula, and yet they often pose a challenge to students and instructors alike. Could making projects personally relevant help? The present study created and tested a conceptual framework regarding the impact of personal relevance on groupwork in a project-based learning (PBL) course. We examined how measures of personal relevance (PR), both at the course level (value, interest in specialisation) and specifically regarding projects (interest and investment in the project, and contribution to the project idea) relate to students' expectancy, group connectedness, team dynamics (effectiveness, conflict, satisfaction, interdependence, and cohesiveness), and perceived effort; whether PR differs based on students' gender, academic year, or time of the semester; and whether PR predicts students' project performance. Seventy-one undergraduates in a project-based computer science course at a large public US university completed surveys assessing these constructs at five timepoints during the semester. Our findings suggest PR is related to positive outcomes in PBL courses, with interest and investment predicting an increase in the project grade. Similarly, gender predicted project grade with female students having significantly higher scores overall, above and beyond other measures. We discuss implications for creating project-based courses in higher education engineering courses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The perception of effort is elementary for the self-regulation of exercise intensity in sports. The competence for rating perceived effort (RPE) seems to be related to physical and cognitive development. Children accurately rate perceived effort during incremental exercise tests when loads progressively increase, but it remains unclear how children perform when they participate in sports games, which are characterized by complex tasks with varying intensity profiles. The present study investigates children's competencies for rating perceived effort and producing predetermined intensities during soccer training. Twenty-five children aged 11–13 years performed two similar training sessions. In the first session, the children trained without intensity instructions and continuously rated their effort. In the second session, the children were instructed to produce predefined intensities. Before the first training session, executive functions were assessed by cognitive performance tests and a self-report measure. RPE correlated significantly with heart rate measures (R2 = 0.27, p

This study examined the predictive quality of intervals performed at maximal sustainable effort to predict 3-km and 10-km running times. In addition, changes in interval performance and associated changes in running performance were investigated. Either 6-week (10-km group, n=29) or 2-week (3-km group, n=16) interval training periods were performed by recreational runners. A linear model was created for both groups based on the running speed of the first 6×3-min interval session and the test run of the preceding week (T1). The accuracy of the model was tested with the running speed of the last interval session and the test run after the training period (T2). Pearson correlation was used to analyze relationships between changes in running speeds during the tests and interval sessions. At T2, the mean absolute percentage error of estimate for 3-km and 10-km test times were 2.3% and 3.4%, respectively. The change in running speed of intervals and test runs from T1 to T2 correlated (r=0.75, p<0.001) in both datasets. Thus, the maximal sustainable effort intervals were able to predict 3-km and 10-km running performance and training adaptations with good accuracy, and current results demonstrate the potential usefulness of intervals as part of the monitoring process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Patients with sternotomy are advised to follow sternal precautions to avoid the risk of sternal complications. However, there are no standard recommendations, in particular to perform the supine-to-sitting postural change, where sternal asymmetrical force may be applied. The aim of this study was to compare the rotational movement and the use of a tied rope (individual device for supine-to-sitting, "IDSS") to perform the supine-to-sitting postural change. A total of 92 patients (26% female) admitted to a rehabilitative post-surgery ward with sternotomy were assessed for sternal instability. Levels of pain and perceived effort during the two modalities of postural change and at rest were assessed. Patients reported higher values of pain and perceived effort (both p < 0.0005) during rotational movement with respect to the use of the IDSS. Moreover, patients with sternal instability (14%) and female patients with macromastia (25%) reported higher pain than those stable or without macromastia (both p < 0.05). No other risk factors were associated with pain. Thus, the IDSS seems to reduce the levels of pain and perceived effort during the supine-to-sitting postural change. Future studies with quantitative assessments are required to suggest the adoption of this technique, mostly in patients with high levels of pain or with sternal instability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The effect of cadence in eccentric (ECC) cycling on physiological and perceptual responses is, to date, poorly understood. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of cadence during ECC cycling on muscular activation (EMG), oxygen consumption (V̇O2), and perceived effort (PE) for two different levels of power output. Methods: Seventeen participants completed four sessions 1 wk apart: 1) determination of the maximal concentric peak power output (PPO) and familiarization with ECC cycling at five cadences (30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 rpm); 2) second familiarization with ECC cycling; 3) and 4) ECC cycling exercise consisting of 5 min at the five different cadences at either 40% or 60% PPO. PE was reported, and V̇O2 and EMG of seven muscles were calculated over the exercise's last minute. Results: PE, V̇O2, and global lower limb muscles activation (EMGALL) showed an effect of cadence (P < 0.001) and followed a curvilinear function. Both low and high cadences increased PE and V̇O2 responses compared with intermediate cadences. Although muscle activation of vastus lateralis follows a U-shaped curve with cadence, it was greater at low cadence for rectus femoris and biceps femoris, greater at high cadence for tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius medialis, and was not altered for soleus. The estimated optimal cadence was greater (all P < 0.01) for V̇O2 (64.5 ± 7.9 rpm) than PE (61.7 ± 9.4 rpm) and EMGALL (55.9 ± 9.3 rpm), but power output had no effect on the optimal cadences. Conclusions: The physiological and perceptual responses to changes in cadence during ECC cycling followed a U-shaped curve with an optimal cadence depending on the parameter considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To determine whether swimming while listening to fast (140 bpm) or moderate tempo (120 bpm) music enhances physical performance compared to a non-music condition. Methods: Sixteen healthy university students (21.5 ± 2.3 years) with a minimum of one year of experience swimming front crawl were recruited. All completed four testing sessions. In the first session, a graded exercise treadmill test was performed to establish baseline fitness. The next three visits were at the swimming pool and participants were asked to swim as far as possible in 12-minutes (i.e., Swimming Cooper Test) under each of three randomly assigned conditions: 120 bpm (M120), 140 bpm (M140) and a non-music condition (NM). Results: No significant differences were found between conditions for either heart rate (p >.05) or rating of perceived exertion (p >.05). However, differences were found on distance covered (p =.014) between M120 (305.7 ± 19.7 m) and M140 (321.2 ± 19.4 m; p =.035), and on stroke frequency (p =.009) between M120 (48.4 ± 1.8) and M140 (51.6 ± 1.9; p =.028). Conclusion: These results suggest that distance covered and the frequency of strokes per minute were greater when participants were exposed to fast tempo music (M140) compared to moderate tempo music (M120) and a non-music condition (NM) in a 12-minute swimming test. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Using exercise protocols at a fixed rating of perceived effort (RPE) is a useful method for exploring the psychophysical influences on exercise performance. However, studies that have employed this protocol have arbitrarily selected RPE values without considering how these values correspond to exercise intensity thresholds and domains. Therefore, aligning RPE intensities with established physiological thresholds seems more appropriate, although the reliability of this method has not been assessed. Methods: Eight recreationally active cyclists completed two identical ramped incremental trials on a cycle ergometer to identify gas exchange threshold (GET). A linear regression model plotted RPE responses during this test alongside gas parameters to establish an RPE corresponding to GET (RPEGET) and 15% above GET (RPE+15%GET). Participants then completed three trials at each intensity, in which performance, physiological, and psychological measures were averaged into 5-min time zone (TZ) intervals and 30-min 'overall' averages. Data were assessed for reliability using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and accompanying standard error measurements (SEM), 95% confidence intervals, and coefficient of variations (CoV). Results : All performance and gas parameters showed excellent levels of test–retest reliability (ICCs = >.900) across both intensities. Performance, gas-related measures, and heart rate averaged over the entire 30-min exercise demonstrated good intra-individual reliability (CoV = < 5%). Conclusion: Recreationally active cyclists can reliably replicate fixed perceived effort exercise across multiple visits when RPE is aligned to physiological thresholds. Some evidence suggests that exercise at RPE+15%GET is more reliable than RPEGET. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Consumers have a higher purchase intention toward imperfect produce when sold by producers compared to professional sellers. • Consumers hold the lay belief that producers (e.g., farmers) provide natural and healthy produce, while professional sellers (e.g., sales clerks) focus more on presale selection. • Utilizing a claim of imperfection can improve the performance of professional sellers when they sell imperfect produce. Although imperfect produce may not differ from regular produce in the dimensions of taste or nutrition, most of consumers unwilling to purchase them, thus, reducing the waste of imperfect produce is crucial for both environmental preservation and food conservation. Through four online experiments in China (covering in total 888 respondents), we provided evidence that consumers are more willing to purchase imperfect produce sold by producers compared to those sold by professional sellers. Pilot study (N = 300) shows that individuals held the lay belief that producers (e.g., farmers) provide natural and healthy produce, while professional sellers (e.g., sales clerks) focus on presale selection. Furthermore, Study 1 (N = 200) found that the sale of imperfect produce by producers elicits a greater purchase intention than that by professional sellers in the context of live streaming shopping. Study 2 (N = 200) then replicated the finding of Study 1 and found that this effect is mediated by the dual mechanism of perceived health and perceived effort in the offline retailing context. Additionally, Study 3 (N = 188) reveals that adding a claim of imperfection causes augments the sales performance of professional sellers in the online shopping context. This finding suggests that adding a claim of imperfection causes can enhance the efficacy of professional sellers in marketing imperfect produce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In higher education, students often avoid desirably difficult learning strategies, such as interleaved practice, thereby limiting their learning outcomes. We studied why students (under)utilize interleaved practice and whether an intervention that combines theory- and experience-based support can improve their immediate and delayed strategy decisions. Higher education students (N = 120) from the Prolific participant pool were recruited. They were randomized into four conditions: Theory-based support, experience-based support, full-treatment, and no support. The theory-based support was refutations that challenged students' erroneous beliefs about learning strategies and warned them about inaccurate monitoring of effort and learning. The experience-based support was metacognitive prompts in the form of visual feedback. This visual prompt showed students the development of their perceived effort and learning across time. Pre-intervention use of interleaved practice was 18%. Students experienced more effort and low learning, at least initially, when using interleaved practice, although actual learning was enhanced. Full-treatment and refutations increased the use of interleaved practice significantly more compared to the other conditions: From 24% to 88% and from 20% to 70%, respectively. Yet, refutations were the necessary and sufficient condition for this improvement. Refutations and visual prompts form a strong strategy intervention that improves the self-regulated use of interleaved practice in immediate and delayed-transfer learning tasks. But, refutations are the key ingredient for this improvement. • Interleaved practice yields more learning, but students prefer blocked practice. • Perceived effort was higher for interleaving while perceived learning was higher for blocking. • Refutations improved the use of interleaving despite perceived high effort. • This improvement was observed one week later and in a delayed-transfer task. • Visual prompts seem to increase students' confidence in their decisions but do not alter them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rago, V, Vigh-Larsen, JF, Deylami, K, Muschinsky, A, and Mohr, M. Use of rating of perceived exertion–based training load in elite ice hockey training and match-play. J Strength Cond Res 36(10): 2837–2843, 2022—Training load (TL) based on the subjective rating of perceived exertion (RPE) may be a useful athlete monitoring alternative when wearable technology is unavailable. The aim of this study was to examine the validity of RPE-based TL monitoring in elite ice hockey. A male ice hockey team (n = 18) was monitored using a 200-Hz accelerometer, heart rate (HR) and RPE (0–10 scale), throughout a 4-week competitive period (n = 309 individual observations). Session-RPE (RPE × duration) averaged 244.8 ± 135.2 and 728.6 ± 150.9 arbitrary units (AU) during practice sessions and during official games, respectively. The smallest worthwhile change was 19.8 AU. Within-individual correlations between session-RPE and total accelerations >0.5 m·s−2 (Acctot), accelerations >2 m·s−2 (Acc2), total decelerations >−0.5 m·s−2 (Dectot), decelerations < −2 m·s−2 (Dec2), time > 85% maximum HR, Edwards' TL, and modified training impulse were very large (r = 0.70–0.89; p < 0.001). In addition, correlations between RPE and measures of exercise intensity (Acctot per min, Acc2 per min, Dectot per min, mean HR, and peak HR) were small (r = 0.02–0.29; p < 0.05) except for Dec2 being unclear (p = 0.686). Differences in intensity parameters between RPE range (easy to very hard, 2–7 AU) were small (r = 0.22–0.31; p < 0.05). The session-RPE method can be used as a global indicator of TL in ice hockey. Specific ranges of time-motion and HR intensity variables can be demarcated between RPE categories (easy to very hard; 2–7 AU). Accounting for training volume (session-RPE) more accurately reflects objective methods of TL based on accelerative efforts and HR, than the RPE score (based on the perception of the intensity). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived fatigue and perceptions of walking abilities and difficulty in people with cerebral palsy (CP). Twenty individuals with CP (range 10–21y; mean age 14.8y) who usually walk in the community were recruited. Community mobility was assessed using the Functional Mobility Scale. Participants were asked about their walking ability and frequency, perceived effort during walking (using the Children's Effort Rating Table), and perceived fatigue (using the Fatigue Impact and Severity Self-Assessment). Community mobility, frequency, and perceived effort during walking were significantly related to fatigue. No relationship was found between time spent walking (maximum walking time) and fatigue. Here we demonstrate that perceived fatigue is related to walking in people with CP. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to minimize climate change it is important that people take up a sustainable lifestyle. Sustainable lifestyles call for pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs) in several domains, such as in-home energy use, mobility, and consumption of food and goods. However, studies show that people often do not consistently behave pro-environmentally in all domains. In this study we investigated how a combination of personal motivation, and the difficulty and the perceived effort of a PEB, predicts the performance of PEBs in various domains, using a survey (n = 1,536). By means of Rasch analysis we identified the difficulty of 17 PEBs and estimated respondents’ pro-environmental motivations. In addition, we investigated if performance of certain PEBs increased the probability of performing other PEBs. This way we could identify for each level of motivation which behaviors respondents were (probably) performing and which behaviors they did not yet perform, but would be least effortful new behaviors. Furthermore, using a non-recursive structural equation model we investigated the relations between perceived effort, PEB performance, motivation, underlying traits, and demographics. Results showed a feedback loop between motivation and perceived effort: when respondents were motivated they perceived behaviors as less effortful and also lower perception of effort was related to higher motivation. Our results imply that people mainly perform PEBs that fit their level of pro-environmental motivation and that they are inclined to do the things of which they can justify the effort they need to invest. This amount of effort seems quite similar for people: no one wants to invest too much effort, but people highly differ in how effortful they assess different behaviors. Our study thus indicates that rationalizations play a key role. Encouraging people to embrace more sustainable lifestyles may involve step-by-step increases in PEB performance. We propose that people should be encouraged to perform behaviors that are closest to their current motivation level in order for them to progress from performing easy to more difficult PEBs.

A comprehensive characterization of neuromuscular and perceptual mechanisms of fatigue at task failure following exercise across the entire intensity spectrum is lacking. This study evaluated the extent of peripheral and central fatigue, and corresponding perceptual attributes, at task failure following cycling within the moderate-(MOD), heavy-(HVY), severe-(SVR), and extreme- (EXT) intensity domains. After a ramp-incremental test, 11 young males performed four constant-power output trials to the limit of tolerance (Tlim) at 4 distinct domain-specific workloads. These trials were preceded and followed by 5-s knee-extension maximal voluntary contractions (MVCs) and femoral nerve electrical stimuli to quantify peripheral and central fatigue. In addition, perceptual measures including ratings of global fatigue, legs pain, dyspnea, and perceived effort (RPE) were also collected. At Tlim, reductions in MVC were independent of intensity (P > 0.05). However, peripheral fatigue was greater following EXT and SVR and progressively, but distinctively, lower following HVY and MOD (P < 0.05). Central fatigue was similar after SVR, HVY, and MOD, but absent after EXT (P < 0.05). At Tlim, subjective ratings of global fatigue were progressively higher with lower exercise intensities, whereas ratings of legs pain and dyspnea were progressively higher with higher exercise intensities. On the other hand, RPE was maximal following HVY, SVR, and EXT, but not MOD. The findings demonstrate that at Tlim, the extent of peripheral fatigue is highly domain-specific, whereas the extent of central fatigue is not. Sensations such as fatigue, pain, and dyspnea may integrate with mechanisms of sense of effort to determine task failure in a manner specific to each intensity domain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As cultural products, games frequently integrate cultural elements, which can be classified as indexical elements or iconic elements based on their degree of connection to real-world cultures. Indexical elements are more directly tied to specific cultural references, while iconic elements are more symbolic. This study explores how these elements influence game evaluations through secondary data analysis and three experiments. Our findings reveal that indexical elements enhance perceived cultural authenticity more than iconic elements, but do not necessarily lead to better game evaluations. Conversely, iconic elements positively impact perceived effort, which contributes to better game evaluations. Furthermore, for players with strong authenticity-seeking motivations, indexical elements improve game evaluations by increasing perceived cultural authenticity. This research contributes to the theoretical understanding of cultural element integration in game design, while providing actionable insights for game developers and cultural product firms. • • Cultural elements in games are categorized into indexical and iconic based on their cultural associations. • With stronger cultural connections, indexical elements enhance perceived cultural authenticity. • Iconic elements, through perceived effort, lead to better overall game evaluations compared to indexical elements. • Players who seek authenticity tend to rate games with indexical elements more highly. • The findings offer insights for game developers on integrating cultural elements to enhance game evaluations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While consumer acceptance of anthropomorphized robots has gained significant attention, limited research has examined the effectiveness of anthropomorphizing robots from a social cognitive perspective. This paper delves into the specific conditions and individual characteristics where the anthropomorphism strategy is most effective. Specifically, Studies 1 and 2 explore the moderating roles of human staff presence and consumers' perceived financial constraints on the robot anthropomorphism effect on consumer visit intention. Both studies employ multiple regression analyses. The findings reveal that the robot anthropomorphism effect on consumer visit intention is more pronounced when a human staff is deployed alongside a robot (Study 1) and for consumers with higher levels of perceived financial constraints (Study 2). Moreover, perceived humanness and effort of service robots explain the underlying mechanism. Managerially, anthropomorphized robots are recommended especially for operations where human staff is present and for budget-friendly businesses that cater to consumers experiencing financial constraints. • The presence of human staff enhances the social schema of anthropomorphized robots. • Financial constraints boost the social appeal of anthropomorphized robots. • Activated social schemas enhance consumers' appreciation of robot effort. • Consumers' perception of robot effort significantly influences their visit intention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effect of negative and positive stereotypes on the strength produced by older adults at different perceived effort intensities, reflecting different levels of task difficulty. Fifty older women were randomly assigned to a positive stereotype, a negative stereotype, or a control condition. Before (T1) and after (T2) the stereotype manipulation, they were asked to perform a voluntary isometric contraction at a level of muscular effort that corresponded to four perceived effort intensities ("easy," "moderate," hard" and "very hard"). Results showed that participants attained greater strength during the easy and hard tasks after exposure to both positive and negative stereotypes. At the moderate and very hard intensities, stereotype induction did not significantly change the strength from the baseline performance. While these results are not fully in line with the stereotype threat theory, they provide evidence that task difficulty could modulate the effect of aging stereotypes during physical tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to understand preadolescents as consumers and to conceptualize the process involved in their food purchase behaviour. Extant literature suggests that behaviour intention is generated as a combined effect of an individual's attitude towards consumption of the product and the subjective norms that one is exposed to. The present paper advocates that this combined effect does not necessarily lead to purchase intention amongst preadolescents and further investigates how they develop purchase intention and behaviour. A conceptual framework has been developed using the insights obtained from a thorough review of the literature and qualitative thematic analysis of 36 in‐depth interviews conducted with preadolescents (9–14 years old) in the context of their food consumption behaviour. The paper proposes an attitude–motivation–behaviour framework which postulates that a favourable socialized attitude, a strong drive and a high perceived effort collectively create high motivation to purchase, leading to purchase behaviour intention, which in turn leads to purchase behaviour amongst preadolescents. The study provides a sequential process through which preadolescents make purchase decisions; hence the proposed conceptual framework, after a quantitative validation, may serve as a guideline for marketers in targeting preadolescent segments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to analyse and quantify the acute effects of competition on several performance factors in young female basketball players, between playing positions. To this end, 37 regional league players (17.21 ± 0.44 years) performed various tests to measure the rate of perceived of effort, sprint times and jump capacity immediately pre-match (T1), at half-time (T2) and post-match (T3). Tests included measuring perceived effort (RPE), sprinting for 20 metres based on time across 10 m and 20 m and performance of countermovement jumps (CMJ). For subsequent analysis, the sample was divided into three playing positions: guards (n=11), forwards (n=15) and centres (n=11). Associated with the expected increases of RPE (from 0.3-0.5 to 7.1-7.3), results showed very likely negative effects with performance decreased from T1 to T3 measures in 20 m (3.51% for guards) and in CMJ (13.7% for forwards). We found likely and very likely negative effects between T1 and T2 in all positions but we did not between T2 and T3 in CMJ. These findings highlight the need to individualise fitness training, taking into account the match needs and demands of the different playing positions in order to minimise the effects of match fatigue and accelerate post-match recovery.

There has been a rapid increase in the use of wearable technology-based physical activity trackers. Most of these physical activity trackers include tracking and displaying the individual's heart rate (HR). There is little known about how HR monitoring influences the perception of exertion and attention allocation. Shifting attentional focus toward the body (association), such as monitoring HR, instead of environmental stimuli (dissociation) may increase one's perceived level of exertion. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of HR monitoring on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and attention allocation during an exertive stepping task in individuals of varying fitness levels. The YMCA stepping task normative values determined fitness levels. For the experimental condition, participants were randomly assigned to one of two conditions (i.e., HR monitoring or control) and completed a stepping task with a weighted vest at 20% of their bodyweight. HR, RPE, and attention allocation were collected at 30-s intervals. Performing the stepping task resulted in a gradual increase of HR and RPE along with a shift from dissociative to associative attention across all conditions. Monitoring one's HR during the task resulted in more dissociative attention allocation, however, no RPE differences were reported between the two conditions. Unfit individuals reported lower levels of RPE during the first time point compared to fit individuals despite having higher HR throughout the task. The results of this study have relevance for applied practitioners implementing physical activity interventions with individuals who monitor their HR.

Objective: This study aims at comparing the energy expenditure (EE) and heart rate (HR) data from Ring Fit Adventure (RFA) with those from indirect calorimetry (COSMED) and a heart rate monitor (Polar FT7). A secondary goal is to evaluate self-reported enjoyment and perceived effort levels. Materials and Methods: Thirty participants (age = 21.8 ± 2.2; body mass index = 31.8 ± 4.4) were recruited for two laboratory visits. The first visit involved baseline measurements. In the second visit, participants performed a 55-minute ad libitum exercise session with the RFA in adventure mode with moderate difficulty. During this session, EE, HR, perceived effort, and enjoyment of physical activity were recorded. Results: Although no statistically significant overestimation of EE was found between the RFA and the metabolic cart, two-way analysis of variance results show a main effect of condition (RFA vs. Polar FT7) on HR (122.8 ± 20.1 bpm and 129.0 ± 18.6 bpm; P  = 0.007; ᶯ p 2  = 0.235). Based on comprehensive statistical evaluations, including the mean absolute percent error, intraclass correlations, typical error of measurement, and limits of agreement, the data suggest that the RFA provides reliable estimates for EE and HR. Overall, participants enjoyed the game considerably (71.3 ± 5.9/80 arbitrary units), and their reported perceived exertion was low. Conclusion: This study underscores that the RFA values are relatively accurate and precise, and thus it can be safely suggested for individuals with overweight and obesity to adopt an active lifestyle.

This study aimed at determining the effect of a passive exoskeleton on local perceived discomfort, perceived effort and low back muscles' activity. Thirteen volunteers performed two simulated working tasks with and without the exoskeleton. In the static task, the exoskeleton decreased the lumbar perceived discomfort, the perceived effort and the level of low back muscles' activity (∼10%) while increasing discomfort in the chest and feet. The percent decrease in EMG amplitude was correlated with the percent increase in perceived effort with exoskeleton. For the dynamic task, the exoskeleton increased the discomfort in the chest and decreased the level of back muscle activity (∼5%). Current findings suggest exoskeleton is effective in reducing the back load while increasing the perceived discomfort at non-targeted body regions in both working tasks. The concurrent increase of discomfort in non-targeted areas probably led to a higher perceived effort despite the reduction of low back muscle activity. Practitioner summary: This study provided insights into exoskeleton effects on local discomfort, perceived effort and muscle activity. Overall, the potential benefits of passive exoskeleton should be considered alongside its adverse effects on the non-targeted body regions that can lead to an increase of perceived effort despite the reduction of back muscle activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the influence of prior knowledge of exercise duration on the pacing strategies employed during game-based activities. Methods: Twelve semiprofessional team-sport athletes (mean ± SD age 22.8 ± 2.1 y) participated in this study. Players performed 3 small-sided games in random order. In one condition (Control), players were informed that they would play the small-sided game for 12 min and then completed the 12-min game. In a 2nd condition (Deception), players were told that they would play the small-sided game for 6 minutes, but after completing the 6-min game, they were asked to complete another 6 min. In a 3rd condition (Unknown), players were not told how long they would be required to play the small-sided game, but the activity was terminated after 12 min. Movement was recorded using a GPS unit sampling at 10 Hz. Post hoc inspection of video footage was undertaken to count the number of possessions and the number and quality of disposals. Results: Higher initial intensities were observed in the Deception (130.6 ± 3.3 m/min) and Unknown (129.3 ± 2.4 m/min) conditions than the Control condition (123.3 ± 3.4 m/min). Greater amounts of high-speed running occurred during the initial phases of the Deception condition, and more low-speed activity occurred during the Unknown condition. A moderately greater number of total skill involvements occurred in the Unknown condition than the Control condition. Conclusions: These findings suggest that during game-based activities, players alter their pacing strategy based on the anticipated endpoint of the exercise bout. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food waste can be observed in the entire food industry, and it negatively impacts the social, environmental and economic spheres. This study aims to identify the predictive factors for such behavior, specifically those relating the propensity to procrastinate, and the “food control” and “perceived effort” variables as mediators of food waste behavior. To this end, data were collected by way of an online survey, resulting in a consistent final sample of 279 respondents, with the hypotheses being analyzed by structural equation modeling. As the key results of this study, procrastination was not significant for explaining food waste behavior, while food control reduces perceived effort. This study has also clarified that greater, intuitive control is counterproductive. As for its contributions to management, the urgent need to use booklets and training to disseminate food control techniques and access to information on the shelf life of food products stands out.

This study was aimed at analysing and quantifying relevant effects of competition on performance factors in female basketball players (16.45±0.92 years) with reference to age (under-16 and under-18) and playing positions: guards (n=19), forwards (n=27) and centres (n=22). Participants completed tests to measure jump capacity (countermovement jump-CMJ) and sprint times (10 m and 20 m) at three moments: just before the match (T1), at half-time and after the match (T3). Associated with the increases of perceived effort, results showed “very likely” negative effects with performance decreased from T1-T3 in 20 m (4.03% and 3.51% for guards u-16 and u-18, respectively) and CMJ (15.17% and 13.7% for guards u-16 and forwards u-18, respectively). We only found a “large” ES in T2-T3 in guards u-16 in CMJ. Findings highlight the necessity to customize training, considering requirements and demands of different ages and playing positions to decrease the impact of fatigue after match.

Food waste can be observed in the entire food industry, and it negatively impacts the social, environmental and economic spheres. This study aims to identify the predictive factors for such behavior, specifically those relating the propensity to procrastinate, and the "food control" and "perceived effort" variables as mediators of food waste behavior. To this end, data were collected by way of an online survey, resulting in a consistent final sample of 279 respondents, with the hypotheses being analyzed by structural equation modeling. As the key results of this study, procrastination was not significant for explaining food waste behavior, while food control reduces perceived effort. This study has also clarified that greater, intuitive control is counterproductive. As for its contributions to management, the urgent need to use booklets and training to disseminate food control techniques and access to information on the shelf life of food products stands out. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the musical tempo on heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and distance run (DR) during a treadmill aerobic test in young male and female adults. Participants ran on the treadmill listening to music at 140 beats per minute (bpm; M140), 120 bpm (M120), or without music (NM). No significant sex differences were found on HR (M140 = 172.6 ± 12.7, M120 = 171.9 ± 11.1, NM = 170.1 ± 12.2 bpm, p =.312), RPE (M140 = 7.5 ± 1.4, M120 = 7.6 ± 1.3, NM = 7.6 ± 1.2, p =.931), or DR (M140 = 4,791.4 ± 2,681.1, M120 = 4,900.0 ± 2,916.9, NM = 4,356.1 ± 2,571.2 m, p =.715). Differences were found in the effect of tempo on HR between condition M140 and NM (172.6 ± 12.7 vs. 170.1 ± 12.2 bpm, p =.044, η2 = 0.32). In conclusion, musical tempo does not affect performance, physiological, or perceptual variables in young adults exercising on a treadmill at a constant speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ideally, pro-environmental consumer behavior leads to a lower impact on the environment. However, due to negative behavioral spillovers environmentally friendly behavior could lead to an overall higher environmental impact if subsequent environmentally unfriendly behavior occurs. In this exploratory interview study we focused on two pathways leading to negative spillover: a psychological path (perceived effort, moral licensing) and an economic path (rebound effects). We wanted to gain insight into people’s motivations to behave environmentally unfriendly and to explore people’s level of awareness of both pathways. Our results indicate that pro-environmental behaviors that are associated with higher effort are performed less frequently, and that when people do not perform these behaviors they associate them with higher effort levels. When people perceive behaviors as more effortful they increasingly seem to use arguments to motivate and rationalize why performing the behavior is difficult or impossible. Moreover, we found that although some people can imagine that moral licensing and rebound effects could occur and can provide examples from their own lives, most people assess these concepts as not rational. People seem unaware of the relation between a first pro-environmental behavior (PEB) and a subsequent behavior, and therefore inconsistencies in behavior go unnoticed. As people are good at rationalizing why they do not perform specific PEBs, they in general feel satisfied with their own pro-environmental actions. In order to discourage negative spillovers, we describe a number of approaches and research ideas aimed at taking away the grounds for rationalization.

Ideally, pro-environmental consumer behavior leads to a lower impact on the environment. However, due to negative behavioral spillovers environmentally friendly behavior could lead to an overall higher environmental impact if subsequent environmentally unfriendly behavior occurs. In this exploratory interview study we focused on two pathways leading to negative spillover: a psychological path (perceived effort, moral licensing) and an economic path (rebound effects). We wanted to gain insight into people's motivations to behave environmentally unfriendly and to explore people's level of awareness of both pathways. Our results indicate that pro-environmental behaviors that are associated with higher effort are performed less frequently, and that when people do not perform these behaviors they associate them with higher effort levels. When people perceive behaviors as more effortful they increasingly seem to use arguments to motivate and rationalize why performing the behavior is difficult or impossible. Moreover, we found that although some people can imagine that moral licensing and rebound effects could occur and can provide examples from their own lives, most people assess these concepts as not rational. People seem unaware of the relation between a first pro-environmental behavior (PEB) and a subsequent behavior, and therefore inconsistencies in behavior go unnoticed. As people are good at rationalizing why they do not perform specific PEBs, they in general feel satisfied with their own pro-environmental actions. In order to discourage negative spillovers, we describe a number of approaches and research ideas aimed at taking away the grounds for rationalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to analyze and quantify relevant effects of competition on performance factors in female basketball players (16.45±0.92 years) according to age (under-16 and under-18) and playing positions: guards (n=19), forwards (n=27) and centres (n=22). Participants completed tests to measure jump capacity (countermovement jump-CMJ) and sprint times (10 m and 20 m) at three moments: just before the match (T1), at half-time (T2) and after the match (T3). Associated with the increases of perceived effort, results showed "very likely" negative effects with performance decreased from T1-T3 in 20 m (4.03% and 3.51% for guards under-16 and under-18, respectively) and CMJ (15.17% and 13.7% for guards under-16 and forwards under-18, respectively). We only found a "large" ES in T2-T3 in guards under-16 in CMJ. Findings highlight the necessity to customize training, considering requirements and demands of different ages and playing positions to decrease the impact of fatigue after match. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Retos: Nuevas Perspectivas de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación is the property of Federacion Espanola de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educacion Fisica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: Sit-to-stand (STS) is a mechanically demanding task. Little is known about the energy expenditure (EE) and the perceived effort of patients with stroke during STS., Objectives: The objectives of our study were to assess the perceived effort and EE of patients with stroke when moving from STS and to determine whether an association between actual energy expended and patient-perceived effort exists., Method: This descriptive cross-sectional pilot study assessed participants' EE and perceived effort during STS, with a triaxial accelerometer and the modified Borg scale (MBS), respectively., Results: The team screened 428 individuals for potential inclusion, with nine participants ( n = 5 female, 55.5%) meeting the criteria for our pilot study. Participants had a mean age of 52.77 (standard deviation [SD] ± 11.33) years, the majority had a haemorrhagic stroke ( n = 6, 66.6%) and left hemiplegia ( n = 6, 66.6%), and they were assessed 9.11 (SD ± 6.57) days post-stroke. The mean EE during STS was 2.82 (SD ± 1.9) kCal. Most participants ( n = 7, 77.77%) perceived STS as more than a 'moderate' effort on the MBS. The correlation coefficient between the metabolic equivalent of task (METs) and MBS was r = 0.34 ( p = 0.38)., Conclusion: Our study found a fair positive correlation between METs and MBS for patients with stroke during STS., Clinical Implications: The increased EE shown can be a key point for rehabilitation to lessen the extent of EE during STS. Further research is warranted., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article., (© 2024. The Authors.)

Copyright of Revista Andaluza de Medicina del Deporte is the property of Centro Andaluza de Medicina del Deporte and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose: The current study investigated the effect of attention on heaviness perception and its physiological and kinematic contributions. Method: Participants lifted objects that varied in mass and volume while their muscle activity and movement were recorded. Participants were instructed to pay attention to their arm (internal) or the object (external). Results: While heaviness perception did not change as a function of attention, whether muscle activity and movement combined for perception differed across attention conditions. Specifically, muscle activity and movement combined to significantly predict heaviness perception in the external condition, but not the internal condition. Additionally, movement was more salient for perception in both conditions compared to previous research investigating the contribution of muscle activity and movement to heaviness perception. Conclusion: It is suggested that these results support the constrained action hypothesis, which suggests that adopting an external focus of attention benefits motor task performance and learning, and should be further explored in the context of a theory of haptic perception that suggests that the medium for haptic perception is the multifractal tensegrity structure of the body. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most research on perceived effort in children has emanated from a physiological perspective. The purpose of this study was to delineate how children at two different levels of cognitive development perceive three effort sensations (e.g. breathing, exertion, and determination) during a physically incremental task. Participants (n = 50) for this study were recruited from two general age cohorts: 9 years of age (representing the concrete operational stage of cognitive development) and 13 years of age (representing the formal operational stage of cognitive development). Participants performed a stepping task under two physical load levels (0% and +20% of body weight). Dimensions of perceived effort sensations were measured at 30s intervals throughout the exercise. Both, concrete and formal operation cohorts, distinguished the effort sensations similarly across the duration of the exertive task and the two physical loads. Perceived exertion and breathing sensations increased linearly with effort intensity in both cohorts. Determination ratings did not remain stable over time for children in either stage of cognitive development, indicating that children may perceive this dimension differently than adults. The findings indicate that concrete and formal cognitive developmental stages do not pose any evaluative constrains on perceived exertion in young children and the motivational dimension of effort should be further studied in these cohorts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]