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Naravne snovi so spojine ali ekstrakti, ki izvirajo iz živih organizmov ter navadno izkazujejo biološko delovanje. So osnovna surovina za zdravila naravnega izvora. V farmakognoziji se ukvarjamo z njihovim izborom, karakterizacijo, identifikacijo in uporabo. Pogost pristop k odkrivanju potencialno zdravilnih naravnih snovi je preizkušanje učinkov rastlinskih izvlečkov, ki nas v povezavi s kromatografskimi separacijami vodi do izolacije biološko aktivnih molekul. Njihove kemijske strukture ugotavljamo s sodobnimi spektroskopskimi in spektrometrijskimi metodami in nadaljujemo s preizkušanjem njihovega farmakološkega delovanja. Ajda predstavlja bogat vir hranil z ugodnim vplivom na zdravje, zato njena poraba v skladu s popularnostjo zdravega načina življenja narašča. Poleg zdravju koristnih snovi pa ajda vsebuje tudi manj znane, fototoksične fagopirine, ki pod vplivom svetlobe oksidirajo biološko snov in povzročijo njene poškodbe. Za zagotavljanje varnosti ajde in njenih izdelkov je treba fagopirine vrednotiti tako s prehranskega kot s farmacevtskega vidika. Ne nazadnje gre tudi za spojine s potencialno terapevtsko uporabnostjo, na primer v fotodinamični terapiji. Razvili smo učinkovit postopek ekstrakcije fagopirinov z uporabo raztopine acetona in vode. Ugotovili smo, da so najprimernejši material za pridobivanje fagopirinov ajdovi cvetovi. Razvili smo preprosto in občutljivo metodo tekočinske kromatografije visoke ločljivosti s fluorescentno detekcijo. Metoda je primerna za analizo vzorcev ajde in kot izhodišče za razvoj preparativne metode za izolacijo fagopirinov. Ugotovili smo, da je poleg osnovne molekule fagopirina F v zeli ajde še vsaj sedem njegovih derivatov. Te derivate smo kromatografsko ločili na posamezne frakcije. Vrednotili smo jih z UV-Vis absorpcijo, masno spektrometrijo in NMR spektroskopijo. Ugotovili smo strukturi dveh novih fagopirinov, ki se razlikujeta po skupinah, pripetih na naftodiantronski obroč. Fagopirin F je že predhodno znana spojina z dvema piperidinskima obročema, fagopirin E je spojina s piperidinskim in pirolidinskim obročem, fagopirin A pa je spojina z dvema pirolidinskima obročema. Dokazali smo, da v ajdi ni fagopirinov, temveč zgolj protofagopirini kot njihove predstopnje z necikliziranim naftodiantronskim obročem. Po raztopitvi v ekstrakcijskem topilu in pod vplivom svetlobe se protofagopirini pretvorijo v fagopirine. Raziskovali smo topnost, fluorescenco in UV-Vis spektre fagopirinov v različnih topilih iz različnih vzorcev ajde. Za kvantitativno vrednotenje vsebnosti fagopirinov je treba pridobiti čiste spojine kot referenčne spojine. Raziskovalci namesto fagopirina kot referenčne spojine uporabljajo hipericin iz šentjanževke, ki pa zaradi nekoliko drugačne strukture in s tem drugačne absorpcije pri spektrofotometrijski detekciji ni ustrezen za točno kvantitativno vrednotenje fagopirinov. Naše ugotovitve in novo razvite metode bodo pripomogle k nadaljnjemu raziskovanju fagopirinov in vrednotenju vsebnosti in varnosti ajdovih izdelkov. V drugem delu doktorskega dela smo se ukvarjali z izvlečki debla navadne jelke. Izvlečki debel različnih vrst borovcev so znani po vsebnosti polifenolnih spojin z zanimivimi farmakološkimi učinki, predvidoma povezanimi z antioksidativnim delovanjem. Najbolj znan, raziskan in uporabljan je izvleček lubja obmorskega bora (Pinus maritima), Pycnogenol®. Ugotovili smo, da so izvlečki navadne jelke učinkovitejši antioksidanti od Pycnogenola® tako v in vitro antioksidativnih testih, kot tudi na humanih celičnih linijah, izoliranih iz periferne krvi. Komponente izvlečka lubja smo kromatografsko ločili z normalnofazno kolonsko kromatografijo pri zvišanem tlaku in reverznofazno tekočinsko kromatografijo visoke ločljivosti. Vsebovane spojine smo identificirali z metodami masne spektrometrije, UV-Vis absorpcijske spektroskopije in s primerjavo z referenčnimi spojinami. Identificirali smo šest fenolkarboksilnih kislin (galno, homovanilno, protokatehujsko, p-hidroksibenzojsko, vanilno in p-kumarno), tri flavonoide (katehin, epikatehin in katehintetrametileter) in štiri lignane (taksiresinol, 7-(2-metil-3,4-dihidroksitetrahidropiran-5-iloksi)-taksiresinol, sekolariciresinol in lariciresinol). Nadaljevali smo s farmakološkim testiranjem. Ugotovili smo, da izvleček zmanjša nastajanje ateroskleroze pri budrah na kronični aterogeni dieti. Ovrednotili smo vpliv izvlečka in dveh v njem prisotnih fenolnih kislin, p-kumarne in protokatehujske, na izolirana podganja srca, podvržena akutnim ishemijsko-reperfuzijskim poškodbam. Ugotovili smo, da je izvleček značilno zmanjšal poškodbo srčnega tkiva, merjeno preko sproščanja laktat-dehidrogenaze in zmanjšal pojavnost aritmij. p-kumarna in protokatehujska kislina nista imeli tako izrazitih učinkov, zato verjetno samo delno prispevata k sinergističnemu delovanju v izvlečku prisotnih učinkovin. Kot ustrezno surovino za raziskovanje in uporabo smo oblikovali izvleček, raztopljen v polietilenglikolu. Pojavila se je potreba po ugotavljanju vsebnosti vode v tovrstnih vzorcih. Uveljavljena in dostopna Karl-Fischer metoda z opazovanjem spremembe barve pri končni točki titracije ni bila ustrezna, saj je bil izvleček obarvan. Zato smo razvili preprosto in finančno dostopno titracijsko metodo za ugotavljanje vsebnosti vode v obarvanih vzorcih, pri kateri končno točko titracije zaznamo spektrofotometrijsko. Tako ovrednoten izdelek predstavlja dobro osnovo za nadaljnje raziskovanje in razvijanje novih prehranskih dopolnil, kozmetičnih izdelkov in zdravil. Natural products are compounds or extracts that originate from natural sources and usually exhibit biological activity. They are raw materials for natural medicines. Pharmacognosy encompasses their selection, characterization, identification and use. Bioassay-guided fractionation of plant extracts linked to chromatographic separation techniques leads to the isolation of biologically active compounds whose chemical structures can readily be determined by modern spectroscopic and spectrometric methods, followed by testing of their pharmacological activity.Buckwheat contains many healthy nutrients, and its consumption is therefore increasing. The plant contains phototoxic compounds called fagopyrins that can act as photosensitisers upon excitation with visible light causing fagopyrism, but these compounds have received little research attention. To assure adequate safety of buckwheat and its products, fagopyrins should be characterized from a nutritional and pharmaceutical point of view. Nevertheless, fagopyrins are not only health-threatening compounds but also potent photodynamic agents that deserve further research. In this work, fagopyrins extraction procedure was improved employing a mixture of acetone and water. Flowers were recognized as the best material for the extraction. A chromatographic analysis of fagopyrins was performed by developing a simple, sensitive HPLC analytical method of high-resolution employing fluorescence detection. The developed method is a good starting point for a preparative method that would enable the isolation of pure compounds. At least eight fagopyrin derivatives were observed upon isolation and were characterized via UV-Vis absorption, NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. The structures of two new fagopyrins were elucidated. Fagopyrin F is a previously known compound that consists of naphthodianthrone scaffold and two piperidine moieties. Fagopyrin A differentiates by two pyrrolidine moieties instead of piperidine moieties, and fagopyrin E consists of one pyrrolidine and one piperidine moiety. The existence of protofagopyrins that originate in buckwheat and can transform into fagopyrins upon light exposure was confirmed. Information on solubility, fluorescence and UV-Vis absorbance in different solvents were obtained. The need for reference compounds of different fagopyrins that would allow proper quantitative evaluation of buckwheat samples still remains. Researchers use hypericin for that purpose, but we recognize its use as inadequate due to the different structure and consequently uncomparable absorbance in spectrophotometric detection. Our methods complement the existing knowledge regarding fagopyrins and will facilitate their further isolation and analysis of their biological activity. In the second part of our work, silver fir trunk extracts were investigated. Extracts from the bark of different conifer species are known to contain various polyphenols that possess interesting pharmacological activities. So far the most extensive research was done on the antioxidative extract of the maritime pine (Pinus maritima) bark Pycnogenol®, which is widely used in food supplements and cosmetic products. We have shown that antioxidant activity of silver fir (Abies alba) extract is higher comparing to the maritime pine bark extract in vitro and in cultured cells. Components of the extract were separated with normal phase flash chromatography and reversed phase HPLC. Structures of individual compounds were elucidated by mass spectrometry, UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and comparison to reference compounds. Six phenolic acids were identified (gallic, homovanillic, protocatehuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic and p-coumaric), three flavonoids (catechin, epicatechin and catechin tetramethyl eter) and four lignans (taxiresinol, 7-(2-methyl-3,4-dihydroxytetrahydropyran-5-yloxy)-taxiresinol, secoisolariciresinol and laricinresinol).The research was continued with pharmacological testing. It was found that the extract exerts strong antioxidative and protective effects against atherogenic diet-induced arterial wall damage. Protective effects of the silver fir extract and its compounds as well as of two phenolic acids (p-coumaric and protocatechuic acids) were also evauated against ischemia-reperfusion-induced damage in isolated rat hearts. The silver fir extract significantly reduced tissue damage (measured as the lactate dehydrogenase release rate) and shortened the duration of arrhythmias, which was not observed in the case of phenolic acids. It was concluded that the two acids are only partially responsible for the observed effects and synergism of more compounds could be present. Silver fir extract, solubilized in polyethylene glycol was developed as an appropriate raw material for research and use. A need for water determination in such samples emerged. The most accessible technique for water content determination is Karl-Fischer titration with visual detection of a titration endpoint, which was unfortunately not suitable for the analysis of the silver fir extract due to its strong colour. Therefore an appropriate method for moisture determination in coloured samples was developed employing simple equipment and spectrophotometric detection of a titration endpoint. Silver fir extract, characterized in such manner is a suitable ingredient for development of food supplements, cosmetic products and medicines.

Etnofarmakologija proučuje ljudsko (lokalno) in tradicionalno uporabo rastlin, živali, gliv, mikroorganizmov in mineralov za preprečevanje ali zdravljenje bolezni ljudi in živali. Etnofarmakološke raziskave se začnejo s terenskimi raziskavami v lokalni skupnosti, kjer raziskovalci dokumentirajo uporabo lokalnih oz. tradicionalnih zdravil. Nato sledi fitokemijsko, farmakološko in toksikološko vrednotenje terapevtske uporabe zdravil s ciljem prispevati k njihovi boljši in varnejši uporabi. Kras in Gorjanci (Dolenjska) sta pretežno podeželska slovenska predela, ki sta med seboj oddaljena približno 120 km. Kras leži blizu italijanske meje, Gorjanci pa mejijo na Hrvaško. Podnebje Krasa ima sredozemske in celinske vplive, Gorjanci pa imajo zmerno celinsko podnebje. Prebivalci obeh območij so se v preteklosti ukvarjali s kmetijstvom, danes pa aktivna populacija večinoma dela v bližnjih industrijskih središčih. Kljub temu so prebivalci obeh območij še vedno povezani z naravo in znanje o rastlinah je pomembno, saj si ljudje na vrtovih in poljih pridelujejo svojo hrano, nekateri pa se tudi ukvarjajo s kmetijstvom. Veliko prebivalcev Slovenije je še vedno takšnih, ki sami nabirajo zdravilne rastline, kljub temu pa je na območjih Krasa in Gorjancev uporaba zdravilnih rastlin le malo dokumentirana. V terenski etnofarmakološki raziskavi smo med oktobrom 2013 in septembrom 2014 na Krasu in Gorjancih intervjuvali 25 ljudi na vsakem območju. Osrednje vprašanje je bilo: »Katere rastline nabirate ali ste jih nabirali v naravi in jih uporabljate?1«. Osredotočili smo se na rastline, ki jih uporabljamo v zdravilne, prehranske, veterinarske in kozmetične namene. Informatorji2 na Krasu so poročali o uporabi 77 različnih rastlin, na območju Gorjancev pa o 81 različnih rastlinah, od tega je bilo 64 rastlin skupnih obema območjema. Približno 64 % rastlin na vsakem območju je omenilo le nekaj informatorjev (manj kot 7). Ostale rastline smo smatrali kot pomembne in velika večina je bila skupna obema območjema. Le nekaj rastlin je bilo značilnih le za eno območje. Razlike so nastale zaradi različne razširjenosti divjih rastlin in primernih pogojev rasti kultiviranih rastlin, ki so se razlikovali med obema območjema. Informatorji so rastline večinoma uporabljali v zdravilne in prehranske namene, med obema uporabama pa obstaja zvezen prehod. Informatorji so za približno 50 % rastlin poročali o uporabi v zdravilne in prehranske namene. Pogosto so poročali o lastnostih rastline, ki krepijo zdravje, npr. visoka vsebnost vitamina C, čeprav jih niso (nujno) uporabljali s tem namenom. Največ rastlin so uporabljali za zdravljenje gastrointestinalnih bolezni, bolezni respiratornega sistema in bolezni kože. Med rastlinami, ki jih ljudje pogosto nabirajo, smo opazili nekatere razlike v namenu uporabe rastlin med Krasom in Gorjanci. Te razlike bi bile lahko posledica kulturnih razlik, ki so morda nastale zaradi vplivov sosednjih območij. Ustni viri so bili za informatorje pomemben vir znanja o rastlinah. Čeprav so bile to starejše osebe s povprečno starostjo 61 let na Krasu in 69 let na Gorjancih, so na njihovo znanje o zdravilnih rastlinah vplivali mediji, najbolj pogosto poljudne knjige o zdravilnih rastlinah, ki so izšle v 20. stoletju. Na območju Krasa in Gorjancev smo raziskali tudi tradicionalno uporabo rdeče mušnice (Amanita muscaria) za lovljenje muh. V ta namen so rdečo mušnico uporabljali že stoletja, kljub temu pa so pripravki slabo dokumentirani in raziskani. Kolikor je znano, je na področju Slovenije najstarejši zapis o uporabi rdeče mušnice za lovljenje muh v knjigi Flora carniolica (1760) Antonija Scopolija. Na območju Krasa so pripravke rdeče mušnice za lovljenje muh opisale tri informatorke, ki so bile po rodu iz drugih delov Slovenije in so se uporabe spomnile od doma. Na območju Gorjancev pa je pripravke opisalo 13 informatorjev. Rezultati kažejo, da je bila tradicija uporabe rdeče mušnice za lovljenje muh prisotna na Gorjancih in ne na Krasu. Tradicionalno znanje je še prisotno, vendar se bo verjetno v prihodnjih letih izgubilo, saj o trenutni uporabi rdeče mušnice ni poročal nihče. Informatorji so skupno navedli devet različnih metod za pripravo rdeče mušnice za lovljenje muh. Enostavne metode so vključevale namakanje mušnice v mleku ali vodi, nekateri informatorji pa so poročali, da so mušnico le pokapljali z mlekom. Kompleksne metode so vključevale kombinacijo toplotne ali mehanske obdelave in namakanja v mleku ali vodi. Po tradicionalnih metodah smo pripravili osem pripravkov in merili sproščanje ibotenske kisline in muscimola iz glivnega tkiva v petih časovnih točkah (in sicer po 0,5, 1, 2, 3 in 24 urah) z metodo HPLC. Ugotovili smo, da je sproščanje ibotenske kisline časovno odvisno in da količina sproščene ibotenske kisline narašča s časom. Sproščanje ibotenske kisline in muscimola ni bilo odvisno od topila, čeprav so informatorji večkrat omenili mleko kot vodo. Če smo mušnico samo namakali v mleku ali vodi, se je v vsaki časovni točki iz nje sprostila najmanjša količina ibotenske kisline in muscimola. Dodatna toplotna in mehanska obdelava je pospešila sproščanje ibotenske kisline in muscimola. V tretjem delu doktorskega dela smo proučevali uporabo preobjed (Aconitum spp.) na Solčavskem3. Preobjede so strupene rastline, ki so bile del uradne in ljudske medicine v slovenskem prostoru v 19. stoletju. Zaradi toksičnosti je preobjeda prenehala biti uradno zdravilo v 20. stoletju. Rezultati terenske etnofarmakološke raziskave na Solčavskem kažejo, da je ljudsko znanje o uporabi preobjede v zdravilne namene še prisotno, čeprav jo uporabljajo bistveno manj pogosto kot v preteklosti. Informatorji so poročali o uporabi etanolnega ekstrakta, ki so ga pridobili z maceracijo korenin preobjede v domačem žganju. Najverjetneje so nabirali korenine turske preobjede (Aconitum tauricum) in repičaste preobjede (Aconitum napellus). Informatorji niso poročali o uporabi zeli preobjede. V uradni medicini so korenine preobjede začeli uporabljati šele v drugi polovici 19. stoletja, prej pa zel. Sedanja uporaba etanolnega ekstrakta iz korenin preobjede na Solčavskem tako kaže na možen vpliv uradne medicine na ljudsko uporabo te rastline na tem območju. Etanolni ekstrakt so uporabljali notranje in zunanje za zdravljenje različnih bolezni pri ljudeh in živalih. Štirje informatorji so imeli etanolni ekstrakt doma in dva sta bila pripravljena nedavno (leta 1998 in 2015). S fitokemijsko analizo smo potrdili prisotnost akonitina v dveh vzorcih od treh, četrtega nismo analizirali. Za odmerjanje ekstrakta ni bilo splošnega pravila, saj je vsak informator navedel drugačno število kapljic. Čeprav so se recepture za pripravo ekstrakta in odmerjanje med informatorji močno razlikovali, ni bilo poročil o zastrupitvah zaradi uporabe ekstrakta v zdravilne namene. Ljudska uporaba rastlin se je v preteklosti ves čas spreminjala, saj je tudi znanje o njihovi uporabi neprenehoma nastajalo, se spreminjalo, prenašalo in izginjalo. Tehnološki napredek danes omogoča hitrejše nastajanje novih spoznanj in tudi hitrejše širjenje novega in starega znanja o zdravilnih rastlinah. To posledično povzroča še hitrejše spremembe in verjetno tudi poenotenje lokalne uporabe zdravilnih rastlin. Z raziskovalnim delom v okviru doktorske disertacije smo prispevali k boljšemu poznavanju in razumevanju današnje ljudske uporabe rastlin in rdeče mušnice na območju Krasa in Gorjancev ter uporabe preobjede na Solčavskem. Rezultati in ugotovitve raziskav so posnetek sedanjega ljudskega znanja in uporabe rastlin, ki imajo svoje korenine v preteklosti in bodo vplivale tudi na prihodnost. Ethnopharmacology is the study of folk (local) and traditional use of plants, animals, fungi, microorganisms and minerals for prevention and treatment of diseases in humans and animals. Ethnopharmacological research usually begins with a field research in a local community, in which researchers document the use of folk (local) or traditional medicines. Field research is followed by a phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological evaluation of medicines with the aim of contributing to their better and safer use. Karst and Gorjanci (Dolenjska) are two predominantly rural Slovenian areas that are approximately 120 km apart. Karst is located near the Italian border and Gorjanci near the Croatian border. Karst has a climate with Mediterranean and continental influences, and Gorjanci has a moderate continental climate. In the past, the inhabitants of both regions were farmers. Today, however, the active population works in the nearby industrial centres. Nevertheless, people are still connected to nature and knowledge about plants is important in their lives because they produce their own food in gardens or fields and some are still farmers. 25 informants4 were interviewed between October 2013 and September 2014 in the ethnopharmacological field research in Karst and Gorjanci, respectively. The main question was: "Which plants do or did you collect from nature and use?5" Plants for medicinal, nutritive, veterinary or cosmetic use were considered. Informants reported 77 different plants in Karst and 81 in Gorjanci 64 plants were reported in both regions. Approximately 64% of the plants in each region were distinctive for only a few informants (fewer than 7). The remaining plants were considered important, and the majority was mutual to both regions. Few reported plants were typical for just one region. These differences were mostly due to the ecological distribution of wild plants and suitable growing conditions of cultivated plants, which differed between both regions. The most frequently reported uses of plants were medicinal and nutritive, and between both uses, a continuous passage was present. For aproximately 50% of plants, medicinal and nutritive uses were reported. The informants also frequently mentioned properties that promote health, e.g. a high content of vitamin C, although the plants were not (necessarily) used for medicinal purposes. The highest number of plants was used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory system disorders and skin diseases. Differences in the reported medicinal purpose of use for some frequently collected plants were observed between Karst and Gorjanci. These regional differences could be explained by cultural differences, which were possibly due to to the influences from the neighboring areas. Oral sources were also important providers of botanical knowledge to the informants. The informants were mostly elderly people with a mean age of 61 years in Karst and 69 years in Gorjanci. However, their knowledge about plants seemed to be influenced by media, most often popular books about medicinal plants that were published in the 20th century. Traditional use of fly agaric (Amanita muscaria) for catching flies was also investigated in Karst and Gorjanci. Fly agaric has been used for this purpose for centuries. Nevertheless, such preparations are poorly documented and researched. To the best of our knowledge, the oldest record of the use of fly agaric for catching flies is in the book Flora carniolica (1760) written by Antonio Scopoli. In Karst, only three informants reported the use of fly agaric for catching flies and provided a detailed description of the preparations used. These three informants were originally from other parts of Slovenia and remembered the use from their home. In Gorjanci, 13 informants provided a detailed description of fly agaric preparations. Results suggest that the tradition of preparing fly agaric for catching flies was present in Gorjanci but not in Karst. Traditional knowledge, which is still present, will likely disappear in the coming years due to the lack of reports about current use. Infromants reported a total of nine different methods for preparing fly agaric for catching flies. Some methods were simple and included soaking in milk or water or dripping a little milk onto the mushroom. Others were more complex and included a combination of heat or mechanical processing and soaking in milk or water. Eight preparations were prepared according to the traditional methods, and the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol from the fungal material was determined by HPLC in five different time points (0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 24 h). For all preparations, the release of ibotenic acid was time-dependent, with the extracted amount increasing over time. Although milk was used more often than water in traditional recipes, the release of both substances was not dependent on the solvent used. Fungal material that was exclusively soaked in water or milk released the smallest amount of ibotenic acid and muscimol at each time point. Additional heat and mechanical processing led to faster release of ibotenic acid and muscimol from the fungal material. In the third part of the doctoral work, we studied the use of aconite (Aconitum spp.) in Solčavsko region6. Aconitum species are poisonous plants that were part of official and folk medicine in the Slovenian territory in the 19th century. Due to its toxicity, the plant stopped being used as official medicine in the 20th century. Results of the ethnopharmacological field investigation indicate that folk knowledge of the medicinal use of Aconitum spp. is still present in Solčavsko, although the plant is used much less frequently than in the past. The informants reported the preparation of ethanolic extract made from homemade spirits and aconite roots, most likely from the species Aconitum tauricum and Aconitum napellus. The infomants did not report about the use of aconite herb. The official medicine begun to use the aconite roots in the second half of the 19th century but until than, only aconite herb was used. The present use of ethanolic extract made from aconite roots in Solčavsko indicates a possible influence of official medicine on the folk use of this plant in this area. The extract was used internally and externally for various indications use in animals was also reported. Four informants kept the extract at home two extracts were prepared recently (1998 and 2015). By phytochemical analysis, we confirmed the presence of aconitine in two out of three home-made extracts the fourth was not analysed. There was no general rule for dosing of the extract, since each informant reported a different number of administered drops. Although the recipes for the extract and the reported dosages differed greatly among the informants, no poisonings due to the medicinal use of the extract were reported. In the past, the folk use of plants was in constant change because the knowledge of their use was continually being built, changed, transmitted and lost. Advancement in technology today enables us to find new knowledge about plants faster than ever before, as well as transmission of new and old knowledge about medicinal plants to a broader public. This in turn leads to even more rapid changes and possibly unification of the local use of medicinal plants. With this research, we contributed towards greater knowledge of the present folk use of plants and fungi, specifically fly agaric, in Karst and Gorjanci, and the use of aconite in Solčavsko. The findings of this research are a snapshot of the current folk knowledge about plants, which originates in our history, affects our society today and will affect us in the future.