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It has been suggested that good readers make better use of semantic/syntactic information and use relatively less graphic information than do poor readers. To test these hypotheses, minor visual alterations were inserted in words in connected text. Fifteen good and 15 poor readers at the fourth-grade level read two of the altered Passages orally. Results indicated that the good readers read at a faster rate and made fewer miscalls in overall word identification than did the poor readers. However, there were no differences in the ratio of textually acceptable miscalls, and poor readers' responses to altered words seemed less bound to graphic cues than did those of the good readers. These comparisons do not support the initial hypotheses. (Author/AA)

In two experiments, visual and auditory memory were tested for good and for poor readers from the upper elementary grades. Under experimenter-blind conditions, no reading group differences existed for single-mode presentation in recognition frequency or recognition latency. With a multimodal presentation, latencies for poor readers were similar to those for the single-mode presentation. Good readers, however, had significantly faster latencies with multiple input. Generally, results supported dual encoding and self-terminating memory search hypotheses for previously encoded stimuli. Implications of the latency differences between reader groups are discussed with respect to the reading process and reading theory. (Author)

Two college freshman required texts were chosen for analysis of readability and of cloze performance on selected passages. One cloze passage was administered to each of 218 students enrolled in General Psychology and Principles of Biology courses. Dale-Chall readability levels were separately calculated for the same passages. Reading levels of the selected textbooks ranged from fifth/sixth grade to college graduate level. Results of the cloze tests indicated that the majority of the passages selected could be read by students at the instructional level, although only 22% for one text and 42% for the other could be read at the independent reading level, which is usually required. (AA)

This review of the literature on kindergarten assessment and its relationship to primary reading achievement is divided into the the following sections: (1) studies which support early assessment; (2) studies which suggest the use of a battery over a single readiness test; (3) studies which utilize assessment data for treatment purposes; (4) studies which relate to the modality concept; and (5) studies which suggest a developmental sequence in the areas of perception and cognition. Research findings on the correlation of readiness test scores with primary reading achievement clearly indicate that early assessment should be a functional reality in every school district. Studies have shown the superiority of the battery over the single test for identification of high-risk learners. Research findings on specific methods and strategies for use with high-risk pupils are inconclusive. It is suggested that at the end of first grade, pupils whose preferred modality is congruent with the primary instructional strategy of the initial reading program will achieve higher than pupils whose preferred modality is not congruent with the primary instructional strategy of the initial reading program. (LL)

In order to explore the relationship between word recognition and comprehension, the oral reading behavior of two types of disabled readers--readers with poor comprehension but adequate word-recognition abilities (LoC-HiWR) and readers with good comprehension and poor word-recognition abilities (HiC-LoWR)--was compared. Subjects read orally two stories of high grade-three and grade-five readability and answered ten literal questions concerning each story immediately after reading it. Each child's reading and answers were tape recorded. Results of analysis of the oral reading errors, comprehension questions, and reading rate showed that, quantitatively, subjects made more errors on the grade-five story than on the grade-three story and HiC-LoWR subjects made more errors; and, qualitatively, HiC-LoWR subjects used contextual information to better advantage, making fewer errors that were not contextually appropriate. (JM)

The effects of a teacher-training program on the reading scores of 49 students enrolled in special learning-center classes were investigated in a sample of 49 seventh- through twelfth-grade students. Four reading teachers who participated in inservice training classes were pre- and posttested to determine attitudes toward child-centered educational policies and practices and toward progressive educational practices. Students were pre- and posttested using the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills and the Slide-O-Gram Individualized Perceptual Program. Results indicated that teachers were biased toward progressive, child-centered approaches at both pre- and posttesting. Students showed an average gain of one year in reading skills. (Author/AA)

Differences in culture, language, and educational setting contribute to the difficulties Navajo children experience in learning to read English. In Kenneth Goodman's latest research, examining the reading behavior of eight groups of children (four speaking a rural dialect and four for whom English is a second language), the Navajo children showed the least receptive control of English. Examples of research situations in which these children responded to post-story-reading questions show that teachers must be aware of Navajo children's language interferences, must be patient and persistent, and must know how to involve the children in more language activities. (JM)

After it had been determined that reaction time (RT) was a sensitive measure of hemispheric dominance in a verbal task performed by normal adult readers, the reaction times of three groups of subjects (20 normal reading college students, 12 normal reading third graders and 11 poor reading grade school students) were compared. Ss were exposed to tachistoscopically presented slides with stimulus words across both visual fields and probe words presented to either the right or left visual fields. Both groups of normal readers exhibited superior right visual field RT while the poor readers failed to display such a superiority. Findings suggested that verbal RT may be a useful screening technique to identify potential problem readers. (Author/CL)

Discussed is an oral reading procedure for children with reading problems which assesses a reader's competency through an analysis of comprehension evidenced by meaningful versus non-meaningful alterations to the reading text. It is explained that this analysis indicates that the poor reader's needs frequently may be at the syntactic and semantic levels, rather than the word level. Examples are given of five narratives coded for type of textual alteration. Described are potential misplacements of readers in material below their conceptual needs because of word error rather than syntactic and semantic error counts. (CL)

Described is the Kirshner Saroj Visual Perception Speed Test (KSVPST), a measure of perceptual speed using pictures to identify children whose reading difficulties are due to visual processing deficiencies. It is explained that 323 children 6-13 years old were given the Keystone Visual Skills Test, the KSVPST, and reading readiness tests. Data are said to indicate that perceptual speed is significantly related to reading ability. The author suggests that visual training to increase perceptual speed should be considered as part of a total program for children with reading problems. Among seven appendixes is information on the validity and reliability of the KSVPST. (CL)

Verbal recall of bisensory memory tasks was compared among 48 9- to 12-year old boys in three groups: normal readers, primary deficit readers, and secondary deficit readers. Auditory and visual stimulus pairs composed of digits, which incorporated variations of intersensory and intrasensory conditions were administered to Ss through a Bell and Howell Language Master. Continuous monitoring of heart rate and Galvanic Skin Response was performed, and reading error types were analyzed. Results supported the validity of the reading classification system of R. Rabinovitch for differentiating groups of deficient readers. Recall performance was found to differ for visual information processing and sequential recall, with more errors for both observed in the secondary reading group. Findings were consistent with a hypothetical model based on attentional and cognitive factors important for visual and auditory processing in reading. (Author/CL)

Described is a music program for students with reading learning disabilites. It is explained that the program was designed to teach fundamental music skills, to teach visual/motor and auditory skills through music activities, and to evaluate the effect of music skill development on language reading skills. The daily routine of music exercises, including memory song games, rhythm exercises, singing activities and sequencing drills is reviewed. Student improvement in auditory, motor, visual, and social development is noted. (CL)

Oral reading errors of 10 learning disabled children (9-11 years old) were examined in order to describe the type of errors, the use of graphic, syntactic, and semantic information, and the implementation of correction strategies. Tape recordings were made of individual oral reading sessions, and errors were classified according to substitution, omission, insertion, reversal, and complex combination. Results indicated that Ss used graphic, syntactic, and semantic information for reading in a manner consistent with previous research findings on children with no reading difficulties. Findings suggested the possibility of using analysis of oral reading errors as a diagnostic tool for learning disabled students. (CL)

This study tested two long-standing assumptions in education: that reading ability in the elementary grades is differentiated by sex and that boys experience a higher incidence of reading disability than do girls. In addition, three biological explanations for this difference were tested: maturational lag, cerebral dominance, and vulnerability of the male organism. A Hebrew reading-comprehension test was administered to second graders and fifth graders in an Israeli kibbutz, chosen because of the lack of separation of boys and girls, the relative lack of differentiation of socialization practices, and the availability of uniformly maintained medical, developmental, and educational records. Results showed no differences in gender in reading level and reading readiness, in frequency of occurrence of reading disability, in maturational lag, in mixed dominance, nor in 12 selected indices of psychopathology in children. Tables of findings illustrate the text. (JM)

This study investigated the effectiveness of behavior modification techniques used in a 16-week summer remedial reading program for primary-level students. Ten elementary teachers enrolled in an introductory graduate course in diagnostic and remedial reading received eight hours of training in the use of behavior management techniques: establishing baseline data, identifying and using a nonmaterialistic reward system, and rewarding only the appropriate behaviors. Subjects, 28 students who had attended a reading clinic for four weeks and had received 20 hours of instruction, were assigned randomly to experimental and control groups. Control-group teachers instructed their students through the use of games, teacher-made materials, and commercially prepared materials, while experimental-group teachers, using the same instructional materials, added the use of behavioral reinforcers such as verbal and written praise, student-made graphs, wall charts, reading hardware, and free-choice reading. Data, revealing higher skill attainment for the experimental group, suggest that the remediation of specific skill deficiencies in reading is facilitated through the use of behavior modification techniques. (KS)

After consideration of difficulties and shortcomings in the field of research in reading retardation, the evidence about specific factors contributing to reading achievement is reviewed. Factors considered include intelligence and patterns of scores on intelligence subscales, processing of verbal and auditory stimuli, and personality characteristics. (AA)

The persistence of learning disabilities to the junior school level indicates the need for a supplement to the regular school program, especially since junior high represents the last chance in most cases for public educational intervention. One-time development of a workable and transportable program model is therefore desirable. Personnel requirements, desirable facilities, relative costs, testing, rationale, and evaluation design are outlined and examples presented. The model employs a systems analysis approach beginning and ending with the mainstream educational process and proceeding through various stages of intervention with appropriate recycling and intermediate evaluation. (Author/RB)

The possibility that children with learning disabilities often have problems in social areas is evaluated. A study to determine the peer popularity of children classified as having learning disabilities is presented. An analysis of variance was computed for votes received on scales of social attraction and social rejection by learning-disabled and comparison children matched on variables of sex, race, and classroom. The results indicated that learning-disabled children, particularly white and female, were significantly less attractive and more rejected than comparison children. Alternative interpretations of these results are evaluated. (TO)

A recent study was made by classroom teachers to determine why junior high school students were having difficulty in learning to read. More than half of the students who read below grade level appeared to lack motivation. A closed circuit television system was combined with other materials--including kits, book, listening centers--and called the Graphics Expression Reading Improvement System (GERIS). The teacher's objective was to help students improve their reading skills and to provide practice in using these skills effectively. Each student's objective was to produce a tape that he could show to classmates or his parents. The GERIS program utilized an eight-step process in which help was given in the reading lab on a one-to-one basis, and students were programed into those skills and materials they needed most. The program to this point has been successful in motivating students to read. (RB)

The basic reading skills learned in the primary grades do not equip students with sufficient skills to read everything they need to read through school. Hence all teachers, regardless of the grade level or subject they teach, should know what the fundamental reading skills are and how to teach them to children who need help with increasingly more difficult and varied subject matter textbooks. In addition to phonics, picture clues, sight words, context clues, structural analysis, and dictionary usage are useful decoding tools. The comprehension skills advance from literal comprehension through interpretation and critical reading to creative or individual reading. Students should be taught study skills in their content classes because each subject carreis its own vocabulary, and there are unique differences in skills used in various subject fields. Learning to read fluently and rapidly is another basic skill to be developed since there are many different kinds of materials and purposes for reading. And after the primary grades, all reading skills can best be developed using actual materials in subject area classes. (TO)

The purpose of this paper is to give a brief overview of the reasons why a model change for servicing children with specific learning needs was recommended for the St. Anthony Village-New Brighton School District, an overview of the Resource Unit model proposed, and a summary report of the Resource Units within a small district's elementary and secondary schools based on data acquired the first semester of the 1973-74 school year. The contents include "Historical Background,""Resource Unit Model Study,""State Guidelines and Reimbursement Patterns for Special Education Services,""Resource Teacher Working Model,""Building Resource Units,""Record Keeping-Forms,""Patterns of Service,""Number of Students Seen by Resource Unit Teachers," and "Considerations." (WR)

Several working assumptions regarding black reading behavior and alternative contexts for black reading research are presented in this paper along with an attempt to seek the fundamental bases of perception, that is, reading knowledge in the folk wisdom of people. The paper also discusses the influence of cultural and environmental factors on the process of socialization and education, and creates a bridge between reading and speech communication theorists. The paper concludes that the reading program which understands the different perspectives of black culture will be able to apply theories and methods of aural or visual environments, or a combination of those environments so that the reading student is able to utilize the wisdom of his environment. (SW)

A result of a three-week reading institute at Northern Illinois University during the summer of 1974, this publication consists of papers focusing on various aspects of reading from a psycholinguistic perspective and strategy lessons to be used in the development of effective and efficient readers. The contents include five sections: "Moving to Meaning: Purpose and Core of the Reading Process"; "Foniks: Opinions and Reasoned Arguments"; "The Miscue (Or Error)?"; "Punctuation (!), In to na shan, and Learning"; and "Strategy Lessons," which contains 16 lesson plans on specific topics. An appendix consists of lyrics for a song titled "Psycholinguistics." (JM)

With increased awareness of the reading problems of college students, more attention in recent years has been focused on dyslexia. No reliable figures exist on the occurrence of dyslexia among college students, but 10 percent is a representative estimate among elementary students; hence there would logically be fewer dyslexic college students. However, colleges should be prepared to see more and more dyslexic students in the next few years because of the increase in special education classes in the public schools. For the diagnosed dyslexic student, the teacher of composition should have some concrete methods available to help improve reading and composition skills. The situation is even more critical for the undiagnosed learning-disabled student. College teachers, and especially freshman English instructors, must learn to recognize and provide help for students with dyslexia. (RB)

Research concerning teacher readership characteristics--the quality, quantity, and variety of leisure and professional reading--indicates that teachers' reading attitudes and interests reflect a disinterest in social issues as well as in professional literature. As far as book reading is concerned, research has revealed that on the average teachers do read more than the public. However, factors detrimental to teacher readership exist, including the teacher's job, the grading of student papers, housework, television viewing for relaxation, and children. Furthermore, there is evidence that some teachers do have reading difficulties. Thus, readership research involves the major implication that more stringent screening procedures are necessary in admitting students to teacher training, an issue that the total university should face in assessing its academic influence during a student's formative training years. (An annotated bibliography is included.) (JM)

Reviewed in this paper are some of the aspects of Australian practices and research activities in learning disabilities conducted over the past decade. Special emphasis is given to the diagnosis and treatment of children with severe reading problems. The influence of instruments such as the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities on the pattern of clinical and classroom practices in Australian education is traced. An approach which recognizes the interaction of aptitudes and teaching strategy is suggested as perhaps being the most efficient. Also suggested is that legislative or administrative convenience may not best serve children with learning disabilities and that teachers need training to understand both the learning process and the characteristics of exceptional children. (Author/WR)

The building of a repertoire of written words recognized on sight is an important prerequisite for complex reading skills. Coordination of certain sense modalities, when present in the learning of a new written word, increases the probability that this word will be retained over a period of time. This coordination involves specific intersensory transfers (intersensory transfer refers to the ability to translate information from one sensory mode to another). This paper analyzes current word recognition instructional methods in terms of their intersensory transfer components. A perceptual model of word recognition, based on perceptual memory research, is then presented. The model can be utilized as a basis to derive a new instructional technique for remediation of word recognition difficulties. (TO)

One can measure the readability of any piece of reading material for an individual or a group by having the selection read and then testing for comprehension. Increasingly the cloze procedure has come to be used in preference to multiple-choice questions. Other readability scales have been based on previously scaled passages, on carefully graded books, and on the combined judgments of a group of experts. Two variables have consistently stood out as providing the best combination in the measurement of readability. The first is the difficulty of the vocabulary used, which is usually measured by finding the percentage of words that do not appear in a specific list of common, easy words. Spelling patterns as indices of vocabulary difficulty have just begun to be explored and seem promising. The second widely used variable is average sentence length, which seems to represent the many specific reasons why beginnings have been made in the automatic computer scoring of complicated linguistic variables such as syntactic depth and density. The specific factors that make some reading material hard to understand, such as vagueness, ambiguity, and lack of explicitness, are areas in which more research is needed. (WR)