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The European Union (EU) and the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) free trade agreement (FTA) aims to increase regional trade and major integration between the regions; after decades of negotiations, in 2019, finalization of the agreement was reached. However, there are several blockages from both parties in the ratification process: whilst few EU members the criticize environmental and sustainability issues within the agreement, the Mercosur partners oppose the imposition of sustainability standards onto the region without adequate financial support. On this topic, the literature is still too poor to build a systematic literature review; thus, the present analysis follows a quasi-historical approach considering the major steps of the EU–Mercosur FTA looking both at the scientific and gray literature. The study underlines how environmental and sustainability issues are at the core of the European policies; thus, themes such as deforestation and pesticides could be a dealbreaker in the ratification of the agreement. For the EU, the FTA with Mercosur could mark a new step in the race towards it being a new "global standard" for sustainability and production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Arkeoloji Dergisi is the property of Ege University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The European Union (EU) and the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) free trade agreement (FTA) aims to increase regional trade and major integration between the regions; after decades of negotiations, in 2019, finalization of the agreement was reached. However, there are several blockages from both parties in the ratification process: whilst few EU members the criticize environmental and sustainability issues within the agreement, the Mercosur partners oppose the imposition of sustainability standards onto the region without adequate financial support. On this topic, the literature is still too poor to build a systematic literature review; thus, the present analysis follows a quasi-historical approach considering the major steps of the EU–Mercosur FTA looking both at the scientific and gray literature. The study underlines how environmental and sustainability issues are at the core of the European policies; thus, themes such as deforestation and pesticides could be a dealbreaker in the ratification of the agreement. For the EU, the FTA with Mercosur could mark a new step in the race towards it being a new “global standard” for sustainability and production.

Domestic regional synergistic emission reduction is important in achieving national climate goals. This study constructed a game theory-based model for regional synergistic emission reduction, modified the Basic Climate Game using the exact-hat algebra method, and expanded the game model using a general spatial equilibrium model to incorporate cross-regional economic impacts generated by emission reduction actions through factors and product flows. The formation of regional comparative advantages in emission reductions and their impact on synergistic emission reductions were revealed through regional characteristics such as emission elasticity, sectoral structure, regional trade shares, and green total factor productivity. A form of synergy was then proposed that utilizes the comparative advantages of different regions, allowing for synergistic emission reductions across different income regions and engagement with regions that are still at the carbon-peaking stage in cooperation. Moreover, the model was created to be as close to the economic reality as possible to provide a trade, industry, and economic growth policy that complements emission-reduction policies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines Croatian Regional Value Chains (RVCs). We use the value chain approach to study supply chains, examining data specifically for Croatia and its proximate trading partners in the European Union, as well as some other European countries. The value added in Croatian exports is statistically related to the value added in the exports of Croatian trading partners. We argue that Croatian RVCs are organized around regional production centers, with proximity to production capacity, raw materials, and customers as driving factors, and thus most of the value added originates in these RVCs. This paper emphasizes the advantages of representing trade through value added over traditional gross trade statistics and highlights the robustness of RVCs in Croatia to global shocks and transportation reliability issues. We conclude that despite its small absolute size, the Croatian economy is dynamically well-integrated into the EU RVCs, which is crucial for increasing business efficiency and competitiveness, notwithstanding the constraints of relatively low returns to scale. Overall, this study contributes to a better understanding of RVCs in Croatia and their potential benefits for Croatia in the global production organization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regional trade leads to carbon transfer, which in turn raises the issue of carbon inequality. However, less existing research has focused on carbon inequality within megaregions. Combining multi-regional input-output analysis, carbon Gini coefficients and carbon deviation coefficients, this paper presents a comprehensive analysis of carbon equity in inter-provincial trade in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YEB) from the perspective of economic benefits and environmental pressure. The results show that: (1) Carbon emissions from the production and consumption sides of the 11 provinces in the YEB vary considerably. (2) Significant carbon inequality exists in the YEB region. This is manifested in the unequal relationship between the transfer of embodied carbon emissions and economic benefits, as well as the difference in carbon deviation coefficients. Based on the results of our research, this paper can help provide theoretical support and decision-making reference for implementing a differentiated carbon emission reduction responsibility mechanism and establishing a coordinated carbon emission reduction responsibility system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper, analyzes the current trends of Uzbekistan's foreign trade for the years 2017-2022. Special focus is given to the development of net exports of goods and services which differs from the traditional approaches to analyzing exports. The authors put emphasis on main trends of the development of foreign trade and net exports based on such determinants as the liberalization of national currency market, effect of prices on major export commodities on export volumes, increase in budget deficit causing a fall in net exports. Increase in official reserves as a source of financing the deficit of external balance (reducing net exports), liberalization of imports, obtaining preferential GSP+ trade regime with EU, simplification of customs procedures and border control are also examined. Data on exports and imports of the Central Bank of the Republic of Uzbekistan, types of goods and services, as well as the empirical results taken from their own and related studies of some international organizations and experts, have been used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National or regional carbon emissions are generally accounted for by the principle of "producer responsibility", which ignores the embodied carbon emissions implied in product consumption via inter-regional trade. Therefore, it is necessary to include the embodied carbon emissions into the product consumption regions for overall calculation. As an example, this paper analyzes the characteristics of China's domestic regional carbon flow network based on a multiregional input–output table and carbon emission data, identifying three clusters of carbon emission characteristic regions by k-means—the clustering algorithm of machine learning. The research results show that some provinces—such as Beijing, Zhejiang, and Guangdong—are the net input areas of embodied carbon emissions ("consumers"), consuming products and services produced by "producers" such as Hebei, Shanxi, and Inner Mongolia through trade, implicitly transferring the responsibility for carbon emissions. Accounting for carbon emissions worldwide/countrywide should consider both production responsibility and trade income. Our findings provide a novel national or regional classification approach based on embodied carbon emissions, which calls for an equitable regional distribution system of carbon emission rights. Meantime, inter-regional cooperation is of great significance in achieving carbon neutrality. In particular, the economically developed regions need to offer assistance to improve the energy efficiency or optimize the energy structure in less developed regions, by means of capital investment and technology transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study analyses the role of RTAs in determining the export efficiency of India using a stochastic frontier version of the gravity model. We estimate the impact of select RTAs (bilateral, SAFTA, APTA, ASEAN, and MERCOSUR trade bloc) and the partner nation’s regulatory quality on India’s export efficiency throughout 2008–2018. The findings suggest that India has been substantially able to exploit exports efficiency to its trading partners under FTAs (ASEAN&SAFTA) and bilateral agreements compared to PTAs (MERCOSER&APTA); however, India’s exports are yet quite far from the potential frontier. Excluding APTA, all other agreements are statistically significant, implying that joining trade agreements augments India’s export efficiency. The study finds that the regulatory quality of importing nations bears a significant positive impact on India’s export efficiency. This highlights the importance of good institutions and better regulatory quality in realizing the potential level of exports with partner nations.

Domestic regional synergistic emission reduction is important in achieving national climate goals. This study constructed a game theory-based model for regional synergistic emission reduction, modified the Basic Climate Game using the exact-hat algebra method, and expanded the game model using a general spatial equilibrium model to incorporate cross-regional economic impacts generated by emission reduction actions through factors and product flows. The formation of regional comparative advantages in emission reductions and their impact on synergistic emission reductions were revealed through regional characteristics such as emission elasticity, sectoral structure, regional trade shares, and green total factor productivity. A form of synergy was then proposed that utilizes the comparative advantages of different regions, allowing for synergistic emission reductions across different income regions and engagement with regions that are still at the carbon-peaking stage in cooperation. Moreover, the model was created to be as close to the economic reality as possible to provide a trade, industry, and economic growth policy that complements emission-reduction policies.

This paper examines Croatian Regional Value Chains (RVCs). We use the value chain approach to study supply chains, examining data specifically for Croatia and its proximate trading partners in the European Union, as well as some other European countries. The value added in Croatian exports is statistically related to the value added in the exports of Croatian trading partners. We argue that Croatian RVCs are organized around regional production centers, with proximity to production capacity, raw materials, and customers as driving factors, and thus most of the value added originates in these RVCs. This paper emphasizes the advantages of representing trade through value added over traditional gross trade statistics and highlights the robustness of RVCs in Croatia to global shocks and transportation reliability issues. We conclude that despite its small absolute size, the Croatian economy is dynamically well-integrated into the EU RVCs, which is crucial for increasing business efficiency and competitiveness, notwithstanding the constraints of relatively low returns to scale. Overall, this study contributes to a better understanding of RVCs in Croatia and their potential benefits for Croatia in the global production organization.

This research constitutes a contribution to the knowledge ethnomycology in the subregion of the Mixteca Alta of Oaxaca. Aspects on the collection, commercialization, consumption and care of wild edible mushrooms are described. The field work was developed during the months of June to October 2020 with an ethnographic approach consisting of three stages: i) acquisition of mushrooms in the traditional market of Chalcatongo de Hidalgo and through ethnomycological tours; ii) application of interviews to Mixtec of the region; and iii) application of interviews to collectors and merchants. Forty-three scientific species of edible mushrooms were recorded. A total of 354 names were collected for the 43 species identified (218 in Mixtec and 136 in Spanish). Despite the diversity of mushrooms identified in the region, only the most culturally important ones are known and consumed by most people. In general, the interviewees perceive that the use of edible wild mushrooms must be regulated to preserve the mycological biodiversity of the region. The article presents a list of edible species, as well as the main culinary recipes described by the Mixtec who collaborated in the research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the 1 January 2021 the new Protocol on Northern Ireland (NI) regulates NI's trade with the European Union (EU) and Great Britain (GB). These rules imply divergence between trade arrangements in NI and GB creating an unprecedented situation where trade frictions arise between two regions of the same country. In this paper we use a multi-sector economic model to capture the impact that potential non-tariff barriers and tariffs will have on trade in NI. Simulation results demonstrate that a weaker relation between GB and the EU will have a greater negative impact on the NI economy. However, this may be reduced by the ability of NI firms to substitute intermediate inputs from GB for EU imports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use detailed information on the location of agricultural and mining production to approximate international trade for different ethnic groups in order to study its impact on ethnic conflicts in Africa between 1993 and 2010. The goal is to go beyond the income effects of trade to study the residual effects of globalization on conflicts. We find that once we control for income but also for a wide variety of different factors in conflicts (using political variables and fixed effects), the international trade by ethnic groups has a pacific impact on conflicts. While this peaceful impact of trade is mainly found in the trade in agricultural products, it does not have a significant impact on the international trade in mining products. Finally, we propose an original two‐step analysis showing that exports significantly reduce conflicts by affecting time‐varying national characteristics. We interpret this result as an indication that globalization in Africa has participated in the formation of new national identities with peaceful effects between ethnic groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regional trade leads to carbon transfer, which in turn raises the issue of carbon inequality. However, less existing research has focused on carbon inequality within megaregions. Combining multi-regional input-output analysis, carbon Gini coefficients and carbon deviation coefficients, this paper presents a comprehensive analysis of carbon equity in inter-provincial trade in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YEB) from the perspective of economic benefits and environmental pressure. The results show that: (1) Carbon emissions from the production and consumption sides of the 11 provinces in the YEB vary considerably. (2) Significant carbon inequality exists in the YEB region. This is manifested in the unequal relationship between the transfer of embodied carbon emissions and economic benefits, as well as the difference in carbon deviation coefficients. Based on the results of our research, this paper can help provide theoretical support and decision-making reference for implementing a differentiated carbon emission reduction responsibility mechanism and establishing a coordinated carbon emission reduction responsibility system.

This paper investigates the impact and relationship of international students' inflow with export and import trade based on the panel data of 28 provinces in China from 2000 to 2016. However, due to the remarkable differences in economic and social development across various regions, the characteristics and patterns of international students' inflow in different Chinese provinces are significantly large. Our study finds that international students' inflow will promote the development of the host country's export and import trade. The results show that international students' inflow is positive and statistically significant in the Fixed Effect (FE) and the Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) estimation. This paper empirically investigates the impact of international student inflow on China's export and import trade. However, the impact of export and import trade of different modes have certain regional differences. Our study proposes that the Chinese government should attach greater importance to the role of international students' inflow to promote import–export trade. In addition, policymaker needs to design effective strategies and policies to promote export trade from less developed regions, and improve the stability of the sustained growth of export and import trade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of digitalization and against the background of changing consumer behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic, on the one hand, the importance of intangible resources increases, and on the other hand, online retail spreads widely. The article aims to assess the importance and development level of individual intangibles in regional online retail in Russia from the perspective of owners and managers of online stores. In this regard, a field study was conducted in the form of four focus groups and four in-depth interviews with owners and managers of online stores in four federal districts of Russia, namely, the Central, North-Western, Volga, and North Caucasus. As a result, the intangibles that affect the value of online retailers were systematized, the value and development level of individual intangibles in the regional online retail of Russia were assessed. The main features of the intangibles of the regional online retail in Russia related to private labels and technologies were revealed. The authors justify the necessity of further elaboration of the model of forming the value of an online retailer based on the values of its stakeholders, including employees, consumers, and partners. Such a model should be based on the identification of the stakeholders' values, followed by the identification of tools for influencing the intangible factors of their formation. The results obtained can be useful for scientists when developing further methodological approaches to managing the intangibles of online retailers, including taking into account the peculiarities of regional online retail in Russia, as well as can be used in the practical activities of online retailers in the context of managing intangibles and determining promising areas for increasing the value of organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study analyses the role of RTAs in determining the export efficiency of India using a stochastic frontier version of the gravity model. We estimate the impact of select RTAs (bilateral, SAFTA, APTA, ASEAN, and MERCOSUR trade bloc) and the partner nation's regulatory quality on India's export efficiency throughout 2008–2018. The findings suggest that India has been substantially able to exploit exports efficiency to its trading partners under FTAs (ASEAN&SAFTA) and bilateral agreements compared to PTAs (MERCOSER&APTA); however, India's exports are yet quite far from the potential frontier. Excluding APTA, all other agreements are statistically significant, implying that joining trade agreements augments India's export efficiency. The study finds that the regulatory quality of importing nations bears a significant positive impact on India's export efficiency. This highlights the importance of good institutions and better regulatory quality in realizing the potential level of exports with partner nations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

States around the world have evolved with the evolution of global markets opening their doors so as to consider such sovereign entities as competitors, to say the very least. Sharply mobile private capital entails that such capital shops in thy neighbor's market instead when offered the right incentives. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) have been developed around the world as a government tool to attract private capital and achieve an array of benefits from job creation to value-added to the state's economy. In exchange for such delicate capital, countries offer packages of fiscal incentives to foreign investors like tax breaks. And consequently, as such, not only do states compete against each other, but so do entire regions, to attract an inflow of private capital. The situation could gently be described as a race to the bottom by providing the utmost incentives with the least demands from foreign investors. Labor and environmental standards may be overseen and justified by cheap labor that a state's SEZ may offer. And with the resources required of a country to set up such SEZs and market them to facilitate trade and investment, what is to guarantee these zones are actually feasible anyway. This study looks into the core components of SEZs in terms of their main elements and challenges they confront. A look at what institutional frameworks are required to bring SEZs to success is a major discussion and brings in law and development approaches to different schemes. Deliberating SEZs concludes by displaying regional examples of SEZs in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region in places like Dubai, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia's extravagant new megacity NEOM, where outcries for economic diversification away from oil revenues are at the forefront. SEZs have been brought up by these regional state governments as a means of experimenting to achieve sustainable economies. This meant that some of these SEZs have adopted completely foreign ideas such as applying common law to replace their long history of civil law systems influenced by Islamic legal principles, fiqh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the South Asian countries, including Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, the current energy scenario is considered non-sustainable due to diverse issues such as economic, environmental, geopolitical, technological options for energy exploitation, and negligible volume of regional energy trade. Though, within the region, India is leading a phase of energy transition and economic transformation through renewable energy development. The countries need to exhibit well in the development of their renewable sources following the rapid pace of renewable energies worldwide. This article offers an overview of the energy scenario, growth of renewable energies, evolution, and approach for energy policy by highlighting key challenges and barriers for the ecological energy mix of the countries. Importantly, the paper assesses the current energy mix in South Asia, highlighting the anomaly of its fossil fuel-based future outlook, its ambitions to move towards less environmental pollution, and sustainable energy mix through a strategic tool SWOT analysis; strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT). In particular, this study examines the government policies to expand the implementation of renewable sources with an insight into the existing regulatory structure of the energy sector. The presented research findings suggest that to achieve the ambitious target to reduce emission discharge by up to 30% by the year 2030 under Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), the Governments of the three countries must take preemptive measures. It includes the stage-wise reduction of subsidies on fossil fuels, market integration within the region, and swift realization of the existing initiatives through strong political will, good governance, adoption of the latest technologies, and a pragmatic action plan, and energy cooperation across the region.

The article describes the potential free trade zones in Asia-Pacific: Trans-Pacific Partnership, Comprehensive Regional Economic Partnership, Free Trade Zone of Asia-Pacific. Literary sources used by the researchers allowed concluding that the efficiency of integration groups depends on participants’ composition and the level of their trade and economical development. The more heterogeneous trade union participants, the less effective its development. In this article economic proximity and trade interactions intensity are the main factors for choosing integration groups participants. The research goal is to assess the integration potential of mentioned free trade zones in Asia-Pacific. In order to achieve this goal the calculation of participating countries economic proximity and their trade interactions intensity is made by means of econometric and mathematical methods. As a result, Trans-Pacific Partnership which has already been cancelled because of Washington’s withdrawal turned out to be a free trade zone with the biggest integration potential. The results demonstrate the significant gap between the rest of the integration groups and the leader. It is likely to be explained either by incomplete level of integration cooperation for creating sufficient integration group providing positive trade and economical effects or by the absence of such forms of integration cooperation in Asia-Pacific, which let countries receive abovementioned effects. In addition the hypothetical zone of countries with the highest potential integration effects is identified within the premises considered in the article. It consists of 16 countries and demonstrates the highest level of economical proximity

Six years after negotiations, the Economic Partnership Agreement between the European Union and the West African region is still in abeyance pending signatures from Nigeria. Following the fallout from the Cotonou Agreement, the proposed EPA was designed to comply with WTO rules on preferential trade agreements while reinforcing the long-standing relationship between the two parties. This article analyses the crucial challenges facing the ratification of the Agreement and the potential landmines that may be encountered with the harmonisation of the proposed agreement in the region. It shows that although the EPA provides a progressive agenda for the economic development of West Africa, effective implementation and proactive regional integration are key to realising the full potential of the Agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study examines the role of trade agreements (TA) in determining merchandise export efficiency in India using the stochastic frontier gravity model. We estimate the impact of select trade agreements (bilateral, SAFTA, APTA, ASEAN, and MERCOSUR), regulatory quality, and FDI inflow on India's export efficiency in the period 2002 - 2018. Results suggest that TAs have enhanced India's merchandise export efficiency to its trading partners except for the MERCOSUR bloc. However, substantial potential is still untapped. The study finds that the regulatory quality (RQ) of importing nations does not enhance India's export efficiency. Moreover, the RQ of India is promising but not significantly promoting exports. The study suggests that India should further liberalize its existing trade agreements, harmonize and improve regulatory standards facilitating cross-border trade and export-oriented FDI, and undertake trade access to top-consuming markets to achieve its full export potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A region can internationalise in various ways. The question is what type of internationalisation at regional level can be regarded as “smart” and what role should be played in it by foreign owned entities (FOEs)? The paper aims at identifying the role played by FOEs in NUTS-2 smart specialisations’ (SS’s) internationalisation through exports. With the use of a set of PCSE regressions, the paper depicts the role of FOEs in creating SS-compliant exports against the background of their influence on total regional exports. The obtained results proved the positive role of FOEs in regional exports per se and SS-compliant exports. Yet, FOEs differed substantially, as compared to indigenous entities, in terms of product/regional specialisation and technological advancement. The findings imply the importance of FOEs’ embeddedness in regions’ economies and possibility of their incorporation in creating or enhancing regional comparative advantages. The paper contributes by: (i) providing empirical verification of one of the aspects of SS strategy which is exports and establishing comprehensive insight into the evaluation of SS, (ii) depicting the role of FOEs in generating SS-compliant exports, (iii) proposing a set of measures to be used in the extended empirical evaluation of SS consequences in the sphere of exports.

Over the past decade, the Russian government has embarked on an ambitious program of economic development in the Russian Far East (RFE), envisioning the transformation of the region into a hub for trade with the Asia Pacific. This paper explores the extent of RFE’s trade integration with both key partners around the world and the rest of Russia. In particular, we calculate the region’s trade potential on the basis of mean predicted values from a gravity model using three samples that offer different perspectives. Actual trade flows are then evaluated relative to the potential and the resulting index is analyzed for various years and countries. Based on the findings of the paper, we can draw several conclusions. First, RFE exports to Northeast Asia have intensified over the period 2008–2017, allowing the region to surpass its potential, although there seems to be room to grow with respect to China. The Russian government could facilitate cross-border trade by further reducing non-tariff barriers and improving transnational infrastructure links. Second, the deepening integration with Northeast Asia has been achieved at the expense of trade links with the rest of Russia. This might appear worrisome, given the geostrategic importance of RFE for Russia. At the same time, it might simply reflect the fact that RFE’s natural resource exports are increasingly diverted to the Asia Pacific, which is more efficient than to ferry them to Western Russia, where they might end up being re-exported to Europe. Similarly, it might be more efficient for RFE to import from China than from more distant parts of Russia. Third, imports from Japan and Korea are far below potential, although these two countries can play a key role in promoting the economic development of RFE

Objective: The objective of this article is to evaluate the role of specialisation in the export success of counties (powiats) (LAU 1) in Poland between 2004 and 2015. Research Design & Methods: Using panel fixed-effects regressions with Driscoll and Kraay standard errors, the authors investigate the role of export specialisation and product concentration, as well as comparative advantages on the value of log exports per capita, controlling for other important export determinants. Findings: Estimations of the panel model bring the conclusion that specialisation in a positive way contributes to the value of exports per capita, assessed at county level. The robustness of the obtained results has been verified by the use of several concentration and specialisation measures, incl. HHI, Krugman specialisation index, weighted RCA and concentration ratio. Implications & Recommendations:Further research is recommended to capture the consequences of differentiation in the patterns of exports among counties in terms of agricultural vs. industrial goods as well as the low-tech vs. high-tech products. Similar research is recommended to be done at NUTS-2 level in order to inquire into the rationale of smart specialisation(s). Contribution & Value Added: The main contribution of the research is showing the lumpiness of Poland’s exports at county level in terms of product specialisation and concentration. The value added is depicting the positive role of specialisation for the exports success, understood as exports per capita.

Point data observations are often used to calibrate computable general equilibrium (CGE) models; however, results may be impacted by calibration of an Armington trade specification in a regional CGE (R-CGE) model. This paper calibrates an Armington trade specification with three differently estimated interregional trade data sets. It estimates interregional trade with one survey and two non-survey methods. The resulting three different trade data sets are each used to calibrate REMES, an R-CGE model for Norway. Two regional policy reforms are simulated with the three model versions to analyze the sensitivity of regional manufacturing sector output to trade data estimates. The results show that the trade data estimation method used for calibration significantly affects regional sector output results. Policy analysts and developers should be aware that calibrating an Armington trade specification with differently estimated interregional trade data may have a substantial influence on model results, and hence, on ex-ante and ex-post conclusions on policy impacts.

This article analyses the causes of low intra-regional trade connections within South Asia, which have remained disappointing despite the long-awaited launch of the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) on 6 January 2004 in Islamabad. Analysis of World Bank data and other relevant sources for the period 1995–2018 shows that trade among SAFTA members has not increased as significantly as had been hoped. The statistical analysis undertaken confirms what was suspected by many observers, as it shows that the SAFTA countries are not actually natural trading partners. Rather they are often competitors, seeking to export the same product groups. Since this makes the prospects of future substantial increase in mutual trade unlikely, the article concludes with some reflections about how to strengthen regional trade support mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To what extent has the regional exclusion list under the EPA shaped national industrial policy in countries within the ECOWAS region? The Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) are a series of bilateral free-trade systems between the EU and ECOWAS that, if ratified, will transform ECOWAS into a single trading bloc. Under ECOWAS's completed EPA, the region is required to liberalise 75% of its imports from the EU, with a 25% exclusion list to protect existing local industries. However, local industries operate nationally rather than regionally. The regional exclusion list, which was arrived at through negotiation between the fifteen countries of ECOWAS with each country's successful industry included in the regional protection policy, presents problems of 'incoordination'. As trade policies such as protectionism are an essential part of industrial policy, the movement of trade policies from national to the regional space, creates the possibility of incoordination where several neighbouring countries pursue similar industrial policy on the basis of common regional protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the effects of regional trade agreements. The augmented gravity model of international trade is used to test for trade creation and diversion in the context of trade agreements in the Asia‐Pacific region. The results of the estimated model indicate that trade has increased among the members of AFTA and APTA but not among the AANZFTA members. Differences in the levels of development appear to have a significant impact on trade flows, suggesting that there can be no general presumption about the extent of trade creation and trade diversion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of International Relations / Medzinarodne Vztahy is the property of University of Economics in Bratislava, Faculty of International Relations and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Abstract. A region can internationalise in various ways. The question is what type of internationalisation at regional level can be regarded as "smart" and what role should be played in it by foreign owned entities (FOEs)? The paper aims at identifying the role played by FOEs in NUTS-2 smart specialisations' (SS's) internationalisation through exports. With the use of a set of PCSE regressions, the paper depicts the role of FOEs in creating SS-compliant exports against the background of their influence on total regional exports. The obtained results proved the positive role of FOEs in regional exports per se and SS-compliant exports. Yet, FOEs differed substantially, as compared to indigenous entities, in terms of product/regional specialisation and technological advancement. The findings imply the importance of FOEs' embeddedness in regions' economies and possibility of their incorporation in creating or enhancing regional comparative advantages. The paper contributes by: (i) providing empirical verification of one of the aspects of SS strategy which is exports and establishing comprehensive insight into the evaluation of SS, (ii) depicting the role of FOEs in generating SS-compliant exports, (iii) proposing a set of measures to be used in the extended empirical evaluation of SS consequences in the sphere of exports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most of the empirical studies in the literature on intra-industry trade are conducted at the country level. Countries, however, differ in terms of granularity and internal heterogeneity. In the present study we empirically identify the determinants of the overall IIT as well as its horizontal and vertical components in the trade of Spanish and Polish NUTS-2 regions with all existing trade partners over the period 2005–2014. In order to obtain unbiased results, we utilize a semi-mixed effect model, estimated with the PPML method. We estimate the models jointly for all Spanish and Polish regions and then disjointly in a comparative manner – in order to identify incongruities of reaction to the various factors investigated. These include both traditional factors and a number of unorthodox factors such as regional path dependence, quality of regional institutions, the core or peripheral status of the reporting region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Statistical information on freight transport does not adequately capture developments in practice. This paper applies a Bayesian framework to integrate statistics on regional freight transport with data on regional trade. The resulting data describe freight transport in the Netherlands at the NUTS 3 regional level by NSTR commodity groups, and by type of flow. We distinguish intraregional transport, regional exports and imports, international exports and imports, and regional transit. The contribution of this paper is that conditions driving regional transport flows are reflected more clearly in the data. The results show the relative importance of logistic processes in regional transport in the Netherlands. Similarly, specific regional production patterns are also reflected in the data. The results contribute to the development of more evidence-based, region-specific freight strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]