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Türkiye-İran sınırında yer alan Hoy, pek çok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Tuğrul Bey döneminde Selçuklu topraklarına katılan bölge; İlhanlı, Karakoyunlu, Akkoyunlu, Safevi ve Osmanlı hakimiyetlerine girmiştir. Hoy ve yöresine yerleşen Akkoyunlu ve Karakoyunlu Türkmenlerinin izlerine 18. yüzyıl tahrir kayıtlarında da tesadüf edilmiştir. Akkoyunlu Türkmenleri, Hoy merkez köyleri ile Sekmenabâd ve Bebecik nahiyelerine, Karakoyunlu Türkmenleri ise Süleymansaray Nahiyesi’ne yerleşmişlerdir. Akkoyunlulardan sonra Hoy ve yöresinde idareyi Safeviler ele almışlardır. Şah İsmail buraya özel bir önem vererek burada ihtişamlı bir saray yaptırmıştır. Çaldıran Savaşı’ndan sonra Osmanlılar ile Safeviler arasında sürekli el değiştiren şehir, İpek Yolu üzerinde bulunmasından dolayı önemini her zaman korumuştur.1593 yılında Tebriz’e bağlı bir nahiye olan Hoy’a 1728 yılında Çors, Gerger, Sekmenabâd, Süleymansaray, Bebecik, Çaldıran, Aland ve Ovacık nahiyeleri bağlanarak liva statüsüne yükseltilmiştir. Ayrıca Hoy zikredilen tarihte Rabat, Heşd, Gülli, Şivane, Dere, Söğüdlü, Bayındır Bey, Kadı, Tımargan, Çukur, Nohud, Kilise, Kubad, Arami-i Kebirli ve Avahce mahallerine ayrılmıştır.İslam coğrafyacıları tarafından İran Türkistan’ı olarak adlandırılan Hoy’un da içinde bulunduğu inanç ve kültür havzasında yetişen kişiler, Anadolu’da kalıcı izler bırakarak çeşitli kitleleri peşinden sürüklemişlerdir. Bu bağlamda Hoy’dan gelen Ahi Evran, Abdal Musa, Geyikli Baba gibi sufi, derviş ve alimler Horasan’ın manevi kültürünü de beraberlerinde getirerek Anadolu’da, Ahilik, Bektaşilik ve Kızılbaşlık gibi inanç sistemlerinin şekillenmesine büyük katkıda bulunmuşlardır. Dolayısıyla bu çalışmada kimi zaman Osmanlıların kimi zaman Safevilerin hakimiyetine giren Hoy şehrinin 1728 yılında tanzim edilen tahrir kayıtlarındaki yerleşme, nüfus ve iktisadi durumu ele alınarak bir Türk İslam şehri olduğu ortaya koyulmuştur.

Objective: The main objective of the research is to study and analyze the function and role of libraries during the Safavid dinasty. Methodology: According to the nature of the research, a library method based on books, manuscripts, and first-hand (primary) documents, has been used. Findings: The present study shows that in general, two distinct periods can be considered in the life and function of Safavid libraries. The first period, which is related to the 16th century and the reign of Shah Ismail and part of the time of Shah Tahmasb, is a continuation of the role and function of the 15th century libraries, especially the Timurid libraries in Khurasan, where the main task of libraries is to produce and create exquisite manuscripts using the highest level of book design arts. The second approach was to pay attention to libraries in the position of preserving and maintaining the written works of Shiite scholars and jurists, which is considered a significant change in the role and function of important libraries of this period. In this regard, a fundamental change took place in Shia jurisprudential-theological texts, most of which were written by scholars who had migrated to Iran from the Jabal Amel region of Lebanon. The transfer of the personal libraries of this group of immigrant scholars caused many Arabic works to be transferred to Iran. In addition to this kind of texts, attention to Persian language as the language of writing jurisprudential-religious works and used by the public is one of the other features of this period. In addition to the necessity of the time and the need of the Safavid government to gain legitimacy and explain the jurisprudence principles of the Shia religion by using the books and treatises that appeared, including authoring, translating, summarizing and rewriting, another factor was also raised, which was: the negative view from some jurisprudential thoughts to the category of painting, which specifically caused Shah Tahmasb to close the art workshop of his royal library in Qazvin. The change of the capital from Qazvin to Isfahan was also formed in a context affected by these developments. In Isfahan, Shah Abbas committed himself to the establishment of the royal library, which was located in the building complex known as Dowlatkhaneh. In addition, he and his great contemporary scholar, Sheikh Bahai, by taking advantage of the tradition of endowment, gave increasing prosperity to the libraries of the holy shrines, which in particular should be the important collections dedicated to the mausoleum of Sheikh Safi in Ardabil and the library of Imam Reza Shrine in Mashhad (Astan-e Quds-e Razavi). Despite the variety of works that later influenced the collection of the Astan-e Quds library, most of the works available in that place and in other libraries of the second Safavid period, were dedicated to religious and jurisprudential texts, which are generally found in the libraries of schools, mosques, and holy shrines or personal collections were kept. Conclusion: The function and position of libraries during Safavid period can be seen in two different ways. In the first, the continuation of the function of the libraries was like the previous period, in which the main task of the libraries was to create exquisite manuscripts by using the well-known painters, calligraphers, and book designers. In the second stage, more attention was paid to libraries as a place to preserve the written works of Shiite scholars and jurists, which is considered a significant change in the role and performance of important libraries of this period.

Dentistry has been one of the oldest branches of knowledge in the field of medicine. This medical discipline has undergone various changes throughout different historical periods. During the Safavid period (1135-907 AH), practitioners showed a keen interest in dentistry, and numerous medical texts were written in this field, serving as valuable sources of information about the medical conditions of that era. It appears that dentistry in the Safavid era did not experience significant transformation compared to previous periods and largely imitated the achievements of earlier practitioners. The primary topics of focus in Safavid dentistry included the treatment of toothaches, prevention of dental diseases, polishing and whitening of teeth, management of gum diseases, and pediatric dentistry. The most notable remedies prescribed by the medical community of the Safavid era for treating various dental ailments involved the use of Sanun, a concoction made from several herbal ingredients believed to alleviate or cure dental diseases. The main resource for this research was the medical texts from the Safavid era.

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Copyright of Electronic Turkish Studies is the property of Electronic Turkish Studies and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Purpose: The tomb of Shāh Ismāil I has a small square-shaped space and is located between the shrine and the tomb of Sheikh Safi al-din Ardabili. The main purpose of this research is: The examination of the physical and spatial changes of the tomb is based on field studies and restoration and protection plans of the building in the past years. Method and Research: The research method is descriptive-analytical & interpretative and it is the collection of library information and field investigations. Findings and Conclusions: The mausoleum is an independent building that was later built in the empty space between the tombs of Sheikh Safi and the Haram-Khāneh, and after the death of Shāh Ismāil, it was used as his tomb. The mausoleum has a three-layered dome, the outer layer of which is Patupa clover. The decorations of the stem and the dome of the building have been changed in later periods. The shape of the tomb is small and simple, and the height of the dome is lower than other domes in the complex. But in order to give the dome a more visual appearance, the architect has increased the height of the dome by using a long leg to reduce the smallness of the building to some extent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Marmara University Journal of Turkology / Marmara Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi is the property of Marmara University and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This paper offers a new perspective on Ottoman-Safavid-Mughal relations in the early modern period by exploring the broader historical context of Swedish envoy Claes Rålamb's report of the advice offered by the Ottoman chief mufti (the highest-ranking legal authority) to the court in 1657. Rålamb reported that the chief mufti had advised that the Ottoman court reject a Mughal offer to form a Sunni alliance against Iran and instead urged the court to protect the Shiʿi Safavids. By examining early modern inter-imperial Sunni relations in general and diplomatic exchange among these Muslim states between 1648 and 1656 in particular, this article challenges the prevailing narrative of sectarian differences driving political conflicts. I show that in the period following the Ottoman-Safavid peace treaty of 1639, the Ottomans regarded the Safavid state as a buffer polity that helped to secure their legitimacy against potential Sunni rivals in Central Asia and India. The article explores how a shared religious identity fueled rather than discouraged competition for legitimacy and supremacy among Sunni rulers in an increasingly interconnected early modern world, leading the Ottomans to align with their sectarian rivals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dentistry has been one of the oldest branches of knowledge in the field of medicine. This medical discipline has undergone various changes throughout different historical periods. During the Safavid period (1135-907 AH), practitioners showed a keen interest in dentistry, and numerous medical texts were written in this field, serving as valuable sources of information about the medical conditions of that era. It appears that dentistry in the Safavid era did not experience significant transformation compared to previous periods and largely imitated the achievements of earlier practitioners. The primary topics of focus in Safavid dentistry included the treatment of toothaches, prevention of dental diseases, polishing and whitening of teeth, management of gum diseases, and pediatric dentistry. The most notable remedies prescribed by the medical community of the Safavid era for treating various dental ailments involved the use of Sanun, a concoction made from several herbal ingredients believed to alleviate or cure dental diseases. The main resource for this research was the medical texts from the Safavid era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Safavid period, one of the main challenges for social order in Iran was the central government's control over tribes and nomadic groups, particularly the Kurdish tribes. At this time, Kurdish tribes, especially Kalhor and Zangeneh, operated independently and did not adhere to central authority. The Zangeneh and Kalhor tribes, as significant Kurdish groups in western Iran, had different approaches in their interactions with the Safavid state. The present research examined the role of these two tribes in the power balance of the Safavid government, aiming at explaining how this balance was established and what consequences it had for each tribe. The research hypothesis suggests that during the early Safavid rule, the Kalhor acted more independently, while the Safavid government relied more on the Zangeneh tribe. Findings indicate that the Zangenehs' proximity to the center of power increased their political influence and allowed them to bring the Kalhors under control. During Shah Ismail's reign, more attention was directed towards the Kalhor tribe; however, following their rebellion and the establishment of Kalhoristan in Baghdad, which distanced them from central authority, the balance shifted in favor of the Zangeneh tribe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The main objective of the research is to study and analyze the function and role of libraries during the Safavid dinasty. Methodology: According to the nature of the research, a library method based on books, manuscripts, and first-hand (primary) documents, has been used. Findings: The present study shows that in general, two distinct periods can be considered in the life and function of Safavid libraries. The first period, which is related to the 16th century and the reign of Shah Ismail and part of the time of Shah Tahmasb, is a continuation of the role and function of the 15th century libraries, especially the Timurid libraries in Khurasan, where the main task of libraries is to produce and create exquisite manuscripts using the highest level of book design arts. The second approach was to pay attention to libraries in the position of preserving and maintaining the written works of Shiite scholars and jurists, which is considered a significant change in the role and function of important libraries of this period. In this regard, a fundamental change took place in Shia jurisprudential-theological texts, most of which were written by scholars who had migrated to Iran from the Jabal Amel region of Lebanon. The transfer of the personal libraries of this group of immigrant scholars caused many Arabic works to be transferred to Iran. In addition to this kind of texts, attention to Persian language as the language of writing jurisprudential-religious works and used by the public is one of the other features of this period. In addition to the necessity of the time and the need of the Safavid government to gain legitimacy and explain the jurisprudence principles of the Shia religion by using the books and treatises that appeared, including authoring, translating, summarizing and rewriting, another factor was also raised, which was: the negative view from some jurisprudential thoughts to the category of painting, which specifically caused Shah Tahmasb to close the art workshop of his royal library in Qazvin. The change of the capital from Qazvin to Isfahan was also formed in a context affected by these developments. In Isfahan, Shah Abbas committed himself to the establishment of the royal library, which was located in the building complex known as Dowlatkhaneh. In addition, he and his great contemporary scholar, Sheikh Bahai, by taking advantage of the tradition of endowment, gave increasing prosperity to the libraries of the holy shrines, which in particular should be the important collections dedicated to the mausoleum of Sheikh Safi in Ardabil and the library of Imam Reza Shrine in Mashhad (Astan-e Quds-e Razavi). Despite the variety of works that later influenced the collection of the Astan-e Quds library, most of the works available in that place and in other libraries of the second Safavid period, were dedicated to religious and jurisprudential texts, which are generally found in the libraries of schools, mosques, and holy shrines or personal collections were kept. Conclusion: The function and position of libraries during Safavid period can be seen in two different ways. In the first, the continuation of the function of the libraries was like the previous period, in which the main task of the libraries was to create exquisite manuscripts by using the well-known painters, calligraphers, and book designers. In the second stage, more attention was paid to libraries as a place to preserve the written works of Shiite scholars and jurists, which is considered a significant change in the role and performance of important libraries of this period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Safavid era in the history of Iran, following the advent of Islam, holds a significant place in terms of politics and religion due to the establishment of political unity within Iran's borders and the embrace of the Shiite faith. This period was characterized by the Safavid rulers' confrontations with internal dissidents and diverse foreign adversaries. While historical sources from the Safavid era depict these confrontations and conflicts, they are not always faithful representations of reality. Instead, they often reflect the historians' interpretation of events, blending historical content with literary expression. The present study, conducted through a comprehensive review of relevant sources from the Safavid era, aims to explore the intertwined nature of history and poetry, and how these two elements have shaped historical narratives during this period. By delving into the use of poetry within historical texts, the research seeks to understand the role of poetic expression in conveying historical events and stories. The research findings reveal that the extensive incorporation of poetry in historical texts of the Safavid era can be attributed to several factors, including its heightened appeal and influence, the influence of the historiographical tradition from the Mongol era and earlier periods, and the educational backgrounds of the historians of this time, who were steeped in literary traditions before transitioning to historical authorship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Portuguese-Safavid contacts took place for the first time in history in 1507, when the Portuguese fleet under the command of Afonso de Albuquerque entered the Persian Gulf and tried to dominate the Kingdom of Hormuz. Thanks to its location and connection to the trade routes, Hormuz, which generated large revenues from customs duties on goods passing through the port, attracted the attention of the Portuguese, who wanted to build secure bases between the Indian and Iranian trade routes. The Portuguese subjugated the King of Hormuz, who paid a tribute to Shah Ismail, and started the construction of a fortress on the island of Hormuz, thus gaining military and commercial control of the Persian Gulf. Shah Ismail had no intention of giving up the revenue from Hormuz. He did not refrain from reminding his rights over Hormuz at every opportunity and threatened the Portuguese activities in the island militarily. Keeping diplomatic channels open, the Kingdom of Portugal tried to suppress the Shah’s threats. Shah Ismail, struggling to recover from the defeat at Çaldıran, had no other choice but to establish good relations with the Portuguese. Although he did not receive the tribute from Hormuz, Shah Ismail, who chose the path of agreement, made the Portuguese accept the transportation of his people, especially Iranian merchants in the Persian Gulf, to the lands of Arabia by sea. In 1522, when the Portuguese authorities in Hormuz took control of the customs, the king of Hormuz revolted against the Portuguese. He offered the tribute to Shah Ismail and asked for his help against the Portuguese. However, after the sudden death of the King of Hormuz and the new king’s agreement with the Portuguese, the help did not work and Shah Ismail prevented the caravans going to Hormuz. The King of Hormuz, who had lost his income, could not pay the tribute to the Portuguese. As a result, in order to save Hormuz from Safavid pressure, the Portuguese governor of India, D. Duarte de Menezes, sent Baltasar Pessoa to Shah Ismail’s court as an envoy to negotiate. In this context, the translation from Portuguese of the section on Iran in the travelogue “Itinerario...” in which António Tenreiro, who accompanied the Portuguese envoy on his journey to Iran, wrote his observations, is important for us to see Portuguese-Safavid Relations and Iran through the eyes of a Portuguese traveler.

Copyright of Turkish Culture & Haci Bektas Veli Research Quarterly is the property of Turkish Cultur & Haci Bektas Veli Research Quarterly and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The "Safavid"period is one of the special times in the history of Islam in terms of the conflict between the centers of power over the factor of political-religious legitimacy. In this period, we witness the efforts of the institutions of the Shiite clergy, the Safavid monarchy, and Sufism to establish their legitimacy and marginalize rival currents, with the institution of the monarchy now leaning more towards the clergy. The conflict between the centers of power during this period, particularly with regard to the historical legitimacy of Sufism and the leadership role of the clergy in the newly established Shi'i society and system, had specific dimensions and aspects, and the writing of texts refuting Sufism by the clergy should be examined in light of this historical horizon. The refutations of Sufism have fluctuated between the two poles of criticism and destruction; However, the general atmosphere of these texts is often influenced by the author's logic and polemical expression, and the type of criticism of the theoretical aspects of Sufism in these texts is not exempt from these conditions. In this article, by applying the method of discourse analysis and using the tools of critical stylistics, the relationship between the polemical destruction of theoretical mysticism and the main politico- -religious components of the Safavid period in the seven refutations of Sufism during this period has been investigate. From the perspective of this article, the refutations destroyed theoretical mysticism under the influence of the issue of legitimacy and are not reliable sources for analyzing the relationship between theoretical mysticism and Shiism

This research studies the aesthetics of Timurid and Safavid miniatures in a comparative manner. The first chapter deals with the research problem, its importance, and defining the most important terms used in it. The research problem included the topic of the aesthetics of Timurid and Safavid miniatures in the drawings of both eras through the artistic works produced by Islamic painting schools, where each school has characteristics that distinguished it from the other. The research problem was overcome through the following question: How did the Muslim artist achieve the miniatures aesthetics in manuscripts for both eras? The II chapter, the theoretical framework, includes four sections: the first on the aesthetics of Islamic art, the second on the art of Islamic miniatures, the third on the most important artistic features of painting (the Timurid era), and the fourth of the (Safavid) era. The third chapter included the research procedures, and the fourth chapter included the results and conclusions. The functional treatment of the concept of space designated for Islamic miniatures came according to a fruitful and sincere artistic and functional emotional approach within the relationships of creation that give it a spiritual feeling due to what the elements of construction have of multiple intellectual meanings and connotations, such as transferring the stories and events that were prevalent at that time, to documenting the style of Islamic architecture and the type of clothing worn by Muslims, the moral and social values that appeared through the interpretation of the movements of people in the Islamic miniature, as came in most of the sample models.

Objective: After the Chaldaran war, the Safavid government accepted the treaty (Amasiyah, 962 AH) with the Ottomans, in which the details of the boundaries and gaps were not accepted by the parties, and this became the basis of many future conflicts. In the agreement between Safavid Shah Abbas and Ottoman Sultan Murad III, the basis for the formation of documents called Senornameh, which was a kind of agreement on borders, was formed. The purpose of this research is the structural analysis and content analysis of this type of documents. Methodology: This research deals with the structure of senornamehs with a descriptive and analytical method based on the available senornamehs documents and the text of some manuscripts and library sources. Findings: The senornamehs state what historical awareness there was of the regional conflicts of the ruling families and the tribes living in these western borders, and also more and more concrete details of the borders. They present the territory of Iran and Ottoman. These border treaties were greatly expanded in terms of their terms, provisions and functions. Based on the findings of this study, the Senornamehs gradually changed from a border security agreement to an open compromise. The border maps depict the history of the formation of the border and its developments - especially in the western borders of Iran - as well as the role and presence of the border tribes in these border treaties. Conclusion: Documentary studies of senornamehs is a two-way contribution to the history of Iran's border conflicts in order to open a new window of sources and references for future research and a contribution to the science of document recognition in order to make the historical data of documents more tangible. And it is considered desirable and functional to present them. The wars between Iran and Ottoman countries and the nationwide campaigns and hostilities of these two governments did not only create and continue the use of such treaties and regulations, but with the importance of finding these agreements, the regulations in the period Later, it was proposed as an open-minded compromise and as a regulator of communications in the borders and became an official supervisor of the communications of the border tribes, which helps to facilitate trade and commerce regulations in the region. Such demarcation gradually created a new kind of political affiliation and identity by locating the territory of the government and the domination of the ruling systems. Finally, the Senornamehs, which were initially created for the role of political and security separation, took on the role of unifying the culture and identity of the ethnic groups, and later became a kind of political and cultural homogenizer of individuals.

In this article, I trace Safavid paintings depicting women's imagery online and explore the possibility of digitally mapping Safavid (1501–1736) paintings featuring women on publicly accessible platforms. Along with the practice of online mapping that led me to digital museums, I investigated the descriptions presented on three digitized paintings on different platforms to address the questions, "Where and how can Safavid paintings be digitally encountered" and "In light of the theoretical developments in the scholarship on pre-modern discourses of Safavid gender and sexuality, how do the descriptions of Safavid paintings reflect gender discourses online?" By following Safavid paintings of women online and probing the textual descriptions attached to them, and using netnographic research methods to document my experience and encounter with the digitized Safavid paintings, I explore whether the online descriptions accompanying the images could contribute to the making of decolonial knowledge about non-Western gender discourses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The works remaining from any period are definitive mirrors of the thought, culture and language of that era. The reflection of ideology, mentality, language, and the path and practice of the pillars of power have both direct and indirect effects on shaping the content and structure of the writings, which play a major role in giving identity to the ethnicity, language, and intellectual discourse. The ruling power in the Safavid period was composed of a triad of the Safavid kings, the military commanders, and the religious scholars, each of which used mystical, military and religious discourses, respectively. Therefore, they employed three different types of language appropriate to these three types of discourse to communicate with the people. Sharing the goals such as maintaining power and continuing political domination over the people often led to coping with the intellectual and cultural conflicts between mysticism, religion, and military service. In the same way that they used the three languages of mystic self-centrism, religious spiritualism, and military violence to dominate the society, they also utilized the potentials of all the three discourses to produce literary and historical works appropriated to their style of governance, which is evident in the prose language of the era. From a sociolinguistic point of view, language is a tool for exercising power, which links human sciences to social sciences and linguistic. Accordingly, this research deals with the influence of power in Ālam-ārā-ye Safawi from the perspective of sociology of language, distinguishing the powers that have influenced the prose text of this book and determining the frequency and form of the power influence on its prose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growth of translation in the Safavid period can be seen alongside the growth of Persian writing. During this period, many Shi'ite texts were translated from Arabic to Persian. Persian writing grew relatively after the Mongol invasion along with Iranian identity and following the spread of Imami Shiism. During the Safavid era, Persian writing in "translation" also took its path towards expansion. In addition, Persian writing shows an emphasis on language and national identity. Examining the selection of "translation" texts by translators is a significant point and it provides useful information in the field of thought and culture. The evolution in translation themes can be understood by the statistical analysis of the translations of these centuries. These subjects are different in the 10th century, the period of the establishment of the Safavids, and the 11th century, the period of their consolidation. The dominant discourse in this era can be seen in the change in the choice of texts by the translators. What factors caused this change? What was the motivation of translation supervisors and translators for choosing texts? The translations have enlightening historical data that show us the political and ideological changes during this era. In this thesis, in a descriptive-analytical method, we have tried to address the demand of changing the choice of text and content of translation texts and to indicate that in this period based on news, verbal methods have been used to construct and spread Shiism as a constructive ideology in the life of the Safavids.

The history of medicine during the Safavid era (1736-1501 AD) was accompanied by changes; compared to previous periods, it had a lower position. However, the presence of prominent physicians who were famous in various scientific fields caused the knowledge of pharmacology and pharmaceutics to shine so much so that the period was known as the Golden Age of pharmaceutics. Mohammad Saeed Qomi was a physician, pharmacist, and philosopher of the Safavid era who remained unknown despite his fame and important texts. The present research, performed in a descriptive-analytical manner and relying on the resources of libraries, is an attempt to identify and introduce this physician’s medical texts and his scientific life. The findings of this study indicate that hakim Mohammad Saeed Qomi, holding the title of “the Little Sage”, was one of the thinkers of the tenth century AH. He was the private physician of Safavid Shah Abbas II (1632-1666 AD). He was brought up in a scholarly family, where medicine and writing poetry were hereditary. The surviving treatises of this anonymous physician show his knowledge and approach to medical science, pharmacy, and related fields, such as anatomy. Mohammad Saeed’s medical masterpiece is called “Anatomy of the Bones of the Head and Upper Jaw”, considered the first text in the field of anatomy in the Safavid era.

Examining the relations of Kurdish tribes and tribes with each other and with the central government is one of the important topics of Iran's history in the Islamic period. This issue was more important in the Safavid period, especially in the western regions of Iran, due to the hostile relations that were going on with the Ottoman government. In this article, the activities of Kurdish clans and peoples in the western regions of Iran, in the political developments of the period of Shah Abbas I (1038-996 AH) have been investigated historically with a descriptive approach. Among the important topics of this article, what were the policies and causes of the conflicts between the Kurds during the period of Shah Abbas I? The result of the research shows that during the era of Shah Abbas I, the Kurdish clans and tribes of Iran, who had the power and sovereignty of the states of the western regions of Iran in the provinces of Kurdistan, Kermanshah, and Azerbaijan, were among the main political and military actors in the west of the country. In this period, a kind of multifaceted relationship between the tribes and the Kurdish people has been created, which, while creating unrest in the western province of Iran, has also led to tribal conflicts. The main actors of tribal and tribal conflicts in the Kurdish regions during the period of Shah Abbas I were Mahmudi, Danbali, Broadost, Makri, Hakkari, Ardalan, Belbas, Oramans, and Baneh tribes, who were fighting each other for different and numerous reasons. According to the results of this article, coercion, expansionism of the territory of Kurdish princes, power-seeking of some Kurdish tribes, internal disputes and efforts to please the central government, favoritism and fluid policies of the Safavid and Ottoman governments are among the most important causes of Kurdish tribal and tribal conflicts in the period Shah Abbas was the first. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction Inkwells are tools considered in relation to the art of calligraphy. Until now, no study has particularly been done on the metal inkwells of the Metropolitan Museum. Therefore, this study addresses the Iranian metal inkwells, belonging to the 11th-16th centuries AD (5-10 A.H.), in terms of their shape, decorations, and patterns. In the middle centuries, metal inkwells were highly popular and exported to other countries; this fact highlighted their importance and beauty among other Iranian metal works in Islamic era (Shea, 2018, 45). In order to determine the features of these Iranian metal inkwells in terms of shape, decorations, and motifs from the 11th-16th centuries in the Metropolitan Museum, this study first addresses the metalworks of the Seljuk and Safavid eras; then, it identifies and analyzes the common designs and decorations of inkwells in terms of vocabulary, usage, and appearance. Research Method This study examined and compared 6 Iranian metal inkwells preserved in the Metropolitan Museum, belonging to the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 16th centuries (5, 6, 7, and 10 A.H.), with and without lids; most of these works belonged to Khorasan region in terms of shape (the type of lid) and decorations. For this purpose, a brief history of the art of metalworking from the 5th to the 10th centuries AH was provided; the inkwell terminology was extracted from reliable encyclopaedias. Then, the samples were examined in terms of shape and composition of decorative surfaces. Decorative motifs of the inkwells were also examined in terms of plant, animal, geometric, constellation, human figures, and calligraphy categories, including the use of floral Kufi or Naskh scripts by providing analytical tables and motif frequency diagrams. Data was collected in the form of library and documentary reviews, and images were collected from the website of the Metropolitan Museum. Research Findings This study used 6 samples of decoration, including plant motifs, animal motifs, human motifs, constellations, geometric motifs, and calligraphic inscriptions. Plant decorations were the most common, and geometric motifs and constellations were the least common ones. They made use of a variety of khataei motifs, including round flowers, Shah Abbasid, and leaves along with chiaroscuro or morassae as well as ivy stems and scrolls often leading to animal heads or filling the background with geometric and human elements, constellations, and so on. . Horses, lions, gazelles, rabbits, and wolves were the widely used animal motifs that were placed among geometric frames or within the scroll ivy and arabesques, and in their background.. It was noted that animal motifs were placed in a regular rhythm at certain distances and faces of the inkwells, or they were symmetrical. Geometric motifs included sun and cross (chalipa) motifs and seven circle patterns. Human motifs were depicted in the samples on horseback or in the form of constellation motifs. Constellations were also associated with human and animal motifs due to he conventional illustration method. Calligraphic inscriptions were used on the lower and upper bands of the inkwell as well as on the cover. Additionally, Kufi and Naskh scripts with prayer phrases for health, dignity, and happiness of the owner of the inkwell were the most common ones. Metal inkwells, used in different periods of Iranian art, indicate the importance of calligraphy in different regions of Iran such as Khorasan and Isfahan. Decorations and motifs, used in the works left from the 12th and 13th centuries AD (Seljuk period), contained mostly plant motifs, despite the flourishing of astronomy in the Seljuk period and by Iranian scientists. In the tradition of carving metal works of the Khorasan School, dense plant motifs, arabesques, decorative ivy in repeated patterns were widely used and filled the space of objects in a balanced, proportionate manner. This tradition waspreserved in the 10th century as well, and the application of Iranian Tasheer and painting patterns-- such as the intertwining of plant-animal motifs and the elegance of carving-- was doubled. The decorative motifs of metal containers such as inkwells reflected best the recorded history of religious customs and beliefs while representing religious and ceremonial celebrations as well as hunting and fighting rituals. Conclusion Most of the inkwells were baseless, and the division of the decorative space in the inkwells with domed lid was carved on three levels, but the inkwells without a lid or with a flat lid had only one surface for decoration, on which all the elements were arranged. Therefore, the variety and coherence of motifs were presented more in the dome inkwells. The 6th and 7th century (AH) inkwells all had a connecting ring and plate around their body, but the 10th century (AH) inkwells had a connecting ring on the tip of its dome-shaped lid. Results showed that five inkwells from the 5th to 7th centuries were round or had flat lids with a dome in the centre of the lid, embedded on a short vertical base. Their motifs were mostly plant motifs, followed by human and animal motifs, calligraphy decorations, and constellations. Two of these constellations were influenced by the astronomy developed in Khorasan School by Iranian scientists. In the 10th century inkwell, animal motifs and twists of plant motifs were more elegantly and naturalistically drawn, close to the art of Iranian Tasheer. Also, the shape of the inkwell was based on towers and derived from the architectural patterns of a long cylindrical vertical base and a domed lid, symbolizing the sky. In total, plant decorations were the highest in number and geometric motifs (sun, Chalipa, and the seven circle pattern) as well as the constellations were the least common. Horses, lions, gazelles, rabbits, and wolves were widely used animal motifs that spotted among geometric frames or within the scroll ivy and arabesques. Human motifs were depicted on horseback or in the form of constellations. Calligraphic inscriptions were used on the lower and upper bands of the inkwells and on the lid. Kufi and Naskh scripts were the most used motif in decoration of inkwells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Raw materials significantly determine the final composition and properties of a fired ceramic. Raman analysis which characterizes micro- and nanostructures of (coloured) glazes, opacified or not, was applied to shards mostly collected before the 1960s, currently at the Louvre Museum, originated in Anatolia, the Caucasus, Iran and Central Asia, which are, for most of them, characterized by the use of black lines to separate coloured areas, and dated to the period between the 12th and 19th centuries. Measurements were carried out in the laboratory with a blue laser excitation and/or on the conservation site with a mobile device (green laser). Three types of glazes were identified by their nanostructure of the silicate network: (i) a lead-rich glaze analogous to that of Byzantine, Zirid to Hafsid and al-Andalus productions, (ii) a lead-alkali glaze typical of the Ottoman productions of Iznik-Kütahya, and (iii) a mixed (poor lead/lead-free)-alkali glaze typical of Safavid productions. The colour determines the precise composition of the glaze. The identification is not only based on the signature of the stretching mode of the SiO4 tetrahedron (position of the wavenumber of the component(s)) but also on the position and shape of the continuous luminescence of the Raman background, characteristic of the raw materials used. Lead-tin yellow, Fe-rich, Mn-rich and Cr-rich black pigments and opacifiers made of cassiterite and wollastonite were also identified. The results (type of glaze and deduced processing temperature) were discussed in the light of the ternary phase diagrams visualizing elemental composition determined in previous works and the microstructure examination on the polished section (defining single or multistep firing cycles). Continuity was highlighted on the one hand between the tiles of Bursa, Edirne and Istanbul (Ottoman Iznik-like production) and on the other hand between those of Samarkand area (Timurid) and Iran. The procedure was then applied in the study of three objects (two dishes and a bowl) which are very representative of the productions of the Turkish-Persian cultural areas: a polychrome mina'i cup with decoration representing a rider, an Ottoman Iznik fritware with polychrome floral decoration, and a blue-and-white Safavid ceramic with a decoration representing a shrub. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Questioning the notion of master narratives in the study of architecture, this article explores various histories of the Friday mosque in different geographical and temporal contexts and through the lenses of different schools of religious interpretation. The text presents three case-based examples from ʿAbbasid Baghdad, Mamluk Cairo, and Safavid Isfahan to demonstrate that the pre-modern history of the Friday mosque does not follow a neat chronology. By examining the complex nodes of agencies and associations between the Friday mosque, its patrons and users, and the textual juridical engagements with mosques and prayer, the article demonstrates that the evolution of the Friday mosque was multicentred and asynchronous and always reflecting local religious and political contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional artworks in different periods, especially after the advent of Islam in Iran, have benefited a lot from text adornment, due to the emphasis of this religion on science, literacy, and its positive approach to the use of calligraphy. Needless to say, the use of calligraphy was not merely decorative; it was used more to convey a message and show the status of an issue. Metal working in the Safavid period has many artistic and religious values in material and spiritual aspects. Safavid artists have used religious themes, mystical, and Quranic concepts in decorating their works. In their works, they have revealed the mysterious manifestations of mysticism, Islamic religion, and Shiite religion. Samples of metal objects with calligraphy with Quranic content and religious devotions have been investigated. The findings indicate that, in addition to having a decorative aspect, Safavid metalworking has taken its motifs from the common religious thought of that period, namely the Shiite religion. Inside their forms and motifs, these objects are created symbolically as an illustration of the beliefs, rituals, and faith of the Safavid period. Those metal objects that have Quranic verses have a special use, and they are generally used for religious purposes. The content of the verses used, above all, has determined the volume and practical importance of the verse; the artist, therefore, has mostly used the small chapters of the 30th part of the Quran, Ayat al-Korsi, and short verses that have a message in them. The contents of the present article have been collected by library methods; it has been prepared based on documents and in a descriptive-analytical and comparative way. In this article, only a limited number of objects have been examined, which have received more attention than the decorative aspect.

Objective: After the Chaldaran war, the Safavid government accepted the treaty (Amasiyah, 962 AH) with the Ottomans, in which the details of the boundaries and gaps were not accepted by the parties, and this became the basis of many future conflicts. In the agreement between Safavid Shah Abbas and Ottoman Sultan Murad III, the basis for the formation of documents called Senornameh, which was a kind of agreement on borders, was formed. The purpose of this research is the structural analysis and content analysis of this type of documents. Methodology: This research deals with the structure of senornamehs with a descriptive and analytical method based on the available senornamehs documents and the text of some manuscripts and library sources. Findings: The senornamehs state what historical awareness there was of the regional conflicts of the ruling families and the tribes living in these western borders, and also more and more concrete details of the borders. They present the territory of Iran and Ottoman. These border treaties were greatly expanded in terms of their terms, provisions and functions. Based on the findings of this study, the Senornamehs gradually changed from a border security agreement to an open compromise. The border maps depict the history of the formation of the border and its developments - especially in the western borders of Iran - as well as the role and presence of the border tribes in these border treaties. Conclusion: Documentary studies of senornamehs is a two-way contribution to the history of Iran's border conflicts in order to open a new window of sources and references for future research and a contribution to the science of document recognition in order to make the historical data of documents more tangible. And it is considered desirable and functional to present them. The wars between Iran and Ottoman countries and the nationwide campaigns and hostilities of these two governments did not only create and continue the use of such treaties and regulations, but with the importance of finding these agreements, the regulations in the period Later, it was proposed as an open-minded compromise and as a regulator of communications in the borders and became an official supervisor of the communications of the border tribes, which helps to facilitate trade and commerce regulations in the region. Such demarcation gradually created a new kind of political affiliation and identity by locating the territory of the government and the domination of the ruling systems. Finally, the Senornamehs, which were initially created for the role of political and security separation, took on the role of unifying the culture and identity of the ethnic groups, and later became a kind of political and cultural homogenizer of individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the scholars who studied Safavid pathology during the Safavid dynasty, while holding the highest religious position in the government, is Mullah Mohammad Baqir Sabzevari, well-known as Mohaqeq Sabzevari. In his book Rozatol-Alnwar Al-abbasi, written at the request of Shah Abbas II, in addition to providing guidelines for ruling the government and principles for statecraft, he tried to describe the harms that the Safavids suffered. This study seeks to answer this question: from the perspective of Sabzevari in the book Rozatol-Alnwar Al-abbasi, what social harms did Safavid suffer from? Therefore, using a descriptive-analytical method and collecting datasets by library searching, the following findings have been reached: Sabzevari's religious pathology of Safaviya, according to the type of damage mentioned by him, is classified in five fields: pathology of religion, religious knowledge, religious society, religiosity and religious institutions. Sabzevari has been working as a social reformer to improve the livelihood and resurrection of the people, the reformist idea in Rozatol-Alnwar Al-abbasi is based on the practical wisdom of Islam and It shows a justice-oriented and compassionate approach to the general public. Rozatol-Alnwar Al-abbasi should also be mentioned as a text in order to formulate and realize the model of faithful politics, which, based on Islamic beliefs, judgments and ethics, offers a method of ordering good and forbiding bad, at a time when social reform is possible only through accompanying kings. In this book, he has stated his meaning in many cases with ironic expression, and in some cases, he has directly described the harms Sabzevari considers three factors to be involved in order to fix the mentioned damages and preserve and survive the government, which arise from the specific foundations of his political thought: 1-Inner factor: improving the ruler's inner (spiritual) relationship with God 2- External factor: improving the relationship of the ruler with the people and Statesmen in observing the principles of statecraft 3- External and internal factors: justice and peace with the people and fight against oppression and oppressors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the beginning of the XVI century until the beginning of the XVIII century, The Ottoman-Safavid struggle, which continued for about two centuries, took place in this buffer geography along the North-South directional Caucasus-Iraq-Arab line, which is the natural borders of both powers. These conflicts, which took place in the Southern Caucasus, Tabrizcentered Southern Azerbaijan, and the Iraqi-Arab geography, were largely carried out by the coalition elements of both states. In this context, the Crimean Tatars stand out as the most important coalition element in the Eastern Campaigns of the Ottomans. In this study, the role of the Crimean Tatars, who had an autonomous status in the Ottoman political and administrative system, and the military elements acting with them, in the Ottoman expeditions to the East will be clarified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the important issues of the Safavid period is their challenges with foreigners, such as the Portuguese, in the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese domination over the Persian Gulf led to some effects regarding economic and social life in this region and destruction of free trade. The Portuguese rullling, which lasted for more than a century, finally ended during the reign of Shah Abbas I. One of the important issues in ending the Portuguese domination over these areas and especially on Hormuz Island was the British role, which has been exaggerated by some Western historians. These battles are considered the most important reason for the defeat of the Portuguese. This research was based on rereading and analysis of this premise by relying on Iranian traditions. The basic question was whether the quality and role of the government and Iranian forces in the liberation of Hormuz had been specified in important Persian texts and traditions for this battle. It seemed that the role and Iranian forces in liberating Hormuz was much greater than that of the British according to Persian historical texts and especially poems. In this research, this issue was investigated through an analytical-descriptive method. Introduction The history of the coastal and post-coastal regions of the Persian Gulf is one of the subjects which has received less attention in the sources of the Safavid period. The lack of the Safavid navy to play a role in these regions on the one hand and the absence of the Safavid kings on the other hand were two important factors. In addition, the presence of powerful enemies, such as the Uzbeks and the Ottomans, caused the sources of the Safavid era not to be much focused on the events of these regions since they dealt with the events in which the Safavid court and especially the kings had played an important role. In this period, the main focus of the Safavid court was on the eastern and western regions of Iran and the conflicts with the Uzbek and Ottomans with an attempt to repel the invasion of these two Sunni Muslim powers. The failure of the Safavid sources to address this issue caused many ambiguities to be raised about the events of the mentioned areas. One of the important issues in this field was the presence of the Portuguese and their control over the social and especially commercial affairs of the areas. The long-term rule of this colonial force was one of the reasons why Safavid historians did not deal with the issue of the Persian Gulf. This domination finally ended with the actions of Imam Qali Khan, the ruler of Fars during the time of Shah Abbas I. The British also played a role in ending the Portuguese rule. However, the quality of their presence in these battles was narrated differently by Western historians and in some Iranian sources. This research made an attempt to explain the role of the British and Iranian forces in the battle against the Portuguese based on Iranian traditions. The basic question of this research was how the quality and role of the British and Iranian forces in the battle against the Portuguese was presented in Persian texts. The second question was what the consequences of the British presence in these battles were. It seemed that the role and effectiveness of Iranian forces in liberating Hormuz were much greater than those of the British and the ruler of Fars, while no accurate assessment of the strength and power of the native forces of these areas had been made according to Persian historical texts and especially poems. The role of the British in this battle made them more and more present in the future of the Persian Gulf and gave them privileges and exemptions. So far, some studies have dealt with this issue in a very brief way (Vothoqi and Habibi, 1387, 18). Most of the researches were based on the idea that the British forces freed Hormuz from the Portuguese rule and assigned a very small role of the Iranians in this battle. Like Western historians, many Iranian historians had pointed out the essential role of the British in this battle, which had caused most historians to only retell the western traditions in this matter. Materials and Methods In this research, the mentioned subject was examined by using library sources and an analytical-descriptive method and referring to various sources, especially Persian poems. Using various sources of the Safavid era, the roles of the Iranians and the British in liberating Hormuz from the Portuguese rule were analyzed. Discussion, Results, and Conclusion The Portuguese influence and domination on the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Sea of ​​Oman, especially the island of Hormuz, led to their monopoly of trade in these areas, disappearance of free trade, and the increasing militarization of the Persian Gulf. This influence and domination of the Portuguese ended with the cooperation of the Safavid and British forces during the reign of Shah Abbas. The ruler of Persia allied with the British without carefully examining the strength of the indigenous forces on the shores of the Persian Gulf, as well as the strength of the Portuguese forces. Although the British took part in the battle against the Portuguese and the conquest of areas, such as Qeshm and Hormuz islands, their role and presence were very small and insignificant. Western sources had described this presence and role with an exaggeration and given the least attention to the role to the Iranians, while the Arab and non-Arab forces native to the shores and back shores of the Persian Gulf played the main role in the defeat of the Portuguese. However, the low presence of British forces in these battles caused more of them to enter the Persian Gulf. It also led to the conclusion of contracts by the Safavid government with them, in which capitulation could be observed and through which exemptions were granted to them. Upon ending the rule of the rulers of Hormuz, the Safavid rule opened the way to riots and separatism in areas, such as Oman, which were previously ruled by the rulers of Hormuz. The Safavids could consolidate their dominance over these areas with the help of the rulers of Hormuz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Safavid epoch, as one of the most brilliant eras in art periods in Iran, was along with the support of kings from artists. Meanwhile, the new political transfers and relations caused more acquaintance of Oriental artists with western art. The present research, while studying visual, ideological and sociological aspects of Safavid miniature from the viewpoint of the novel “My name: Red” based on Wuthnow theory, contrast the present differences between two miniatures schools of Herat and Tabriz II and the obtained results are matched with one of the miniatures without identification information left from this period. As per the novelist, he had been familiar with the philosophy governing Iranian miniature and its differences with western paintings and investigated the existing differences between traditional and modern views in the miniature workshop of the Ottoman Empire Palace. The points that how the said miniature was following one of the schools of Safavid miniature and how had been its relation with governing miniature school are discussed in this research. The findings of the present research indicate that from the composition viewpoint, this miniature belong to Tabriz II school and the artist, while being institutionalized with environmental conditions and principles, remains royal to the school in question and in some parts benefitted from his contemporaneous innovations. The findings of this article well indicate the importance of referring to fictions in artworks criticism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Holding the joyful rituals has a deep connection with different human societies. Iranian society has not been far from these traditions during its historical development. Following the development and continuance of the Safavid government (1135-907 A. H), an appropriate ground was provided towards re-creating and repeating different types of joyous rituals. It seems that these joyous rituals can be separated into two "traditional" and "religious" formats. Traditional festivities such as Nowruz, as a historical symbol, were an integral part of the court and the public rituals of the society; while a significant range of these rituals had an inseparable relation with the religious approaches of the government and society. The purpose of this article is to investigate and introduce some rituals related to the religious festivals such as Eid al- Azha, Ghadir e- Khom and Birth of Imams (PBUT) through the descriptive and analytical method and relying on library sources.

The various types of coins with different materials, shapes, and themes in each period are a reflection of the cultural functions of that period, and in addition to the economic function, have presented a set of ideologies of the ruling system. Coinage is one of the first obvious signs of civilization and a kind of beginning of the complex social life of the tribes. Patterns and themes engraved on coins have been a constant trend throughout history, but on the other hand in each period they would change and these changes have been influenced by the political and religious attitudes of rulers and artists who designed these coins. The coins of the Safavid period are no exception to this rule and these works have been an important platform and media for the presentation and expression of ideas and beliefs of the time, and the Safavids have used this tool well. Shiite religion, which played a key role in the formation and perpetuation of the Safavid rule, also played an important and stable role in the formation of culture and art of this era, and this area was not unaffected by the change in ideology and social developments of the time. By changing the political, military, economic, and religious structures in Iran, the Safavids achieved significant development, progress and cultural advancement. The concentration and integration of the Safavid state organization caused all the arts to flourish and many productions to be made in all fields of art, and thus the arts in this era grew significantly in quantity. The works formed during this period, backed by valuable experiences of the Timurids, had a unique strength and integrity and masterful skill that is less seen in the post-Safavid period. Shiite philosophy and thought had a special manifestation in the works of this period, to the extent that with the recognition of the Safavid Shiite dynasty in Iran, artists put more emphasis on Shiite themes as the basis of their works and used Shiite calligraphy and religious ideology in applied arts as decorative elements and tools to propagate and strengthen Shiite values. Due to the existence of two characteristic features of Shiite religion and national identity, the art of this period had become a tool for expression and was used in service of the religion. Various disciplines of art in this period were associated with Shiite thought, and symbolic language expressed the ideas of this religion. Iranian and Shiite artists reflected the spirit of Shiite thought, i.e. devotion to the family of the Prophet and the Imams, and especially Ali ibn Abi Talib (AS) himself in various ways in their works of art. This article aims to explore the hidden and less studied characteristics of copper coins or foluses of this period. Accordingly, while introducing the silver motifs on these foluses, it analyzes the motifs regarding the image of "lion and sun" as a relatively recurring theme in these works. This research with a descriptive-analytical method and historical approach, studies the content of the theme of "Lion and Sun" engraved on the common foluses of the late Safavid period, based on prefixes such as: "Content of common astronomical knowledge", "presented descriptions", “Shiite index themes in the content of narrations and hadiths" and "descriptions of Shiite index themes in literary sources", "written themes of contemporary coins" and "functional contexts of these coins". Data collection was done by library method and their analysis was qualitative. 41 folus coins minted in the Safavid period decorated with the image of lion and sun, form the samples studied in this study. The results of this study show that the designs stamped on Safavid copper coins include human (human body on horseback), cattle (horse, lion, elephant, deer, wild goat, monkey, camel, etc.), birds (with emphasis on the image of peacocks), aquatics (with emphasis on the image of fish), plants (cypress and arabesque), celestial (sun and constellations) and hybrid (peacock and snake, lion and sun, cow and fish or whale, etc.). Meanwhile, the image of "lion and sun" was one of the most frequent motifs on these copper coins. In the process of semantic analysis of this image, various contexts such as "content of common astronomical knowledge", "literary sources", "content of narrations and hadiths", "written themes of contemporary coins", "examples of paintings" and the "functional contexts of these coins" were studied, and finally, the religious and Shiite content for this image and this functional context was found more probable than other assumed contents (astronomical, ancient). According to the study of the above-mentioned texts, the content of this image is related to one of the most important principles of Shiite belief; namely the succession and guardianship of Imam Ali (AS) after the Holy Prophet of Islam (PBUH) and has a high status since it represents Imam Ali (AS) in Shiite thought.

Iran-India relations in the Safavid period were of special importance due to internal, regional and global developments. These connections were made both by sea and by land. Since Sistan province was in the neighborhood of India during the Safavid period and Kandahar province was also a border province, one of the communication routes between Iran and India in the Safavid period was the Sistan and Kandahar road. The communication importance of the roads of this route was so great that it was not neglected by European cartographers at that time. One of the interesting maps about drawing the roads of Iran in the Safavid period is the map of Guillaume Delisle, France. Considering the importance of Iran-India relations in the Safavid period and the mapping of Iran-India communication routes in Guillaume Delisle's map, the question arises as to what role the Sistan and Kandahar routes mapped in Guillaume Delisle's map, what role in Iran-India relations they had? The findings of this study indicate that the use of ligaments and caravanserais provided security measures and facilities for the Sistan and Kandahar roads, and a major part of the political, military, economic and cultural relations between Iran and India through communication. These ways were done. The purpose of this article is to introduce the drawn roads of Sistan and Kandahar in the map of Guillaume Delisleand to explain the communication role of these roads in the relations between Iran and India in the Safavid period has been done in a historical way by describing and analyzing the collected data.

The dodecagon carpet of the tomb of Shah Abbas II is the largest Safavid silk carpet woven in 1671 AD. The carpet is preserved in the article in the Museum of Hazrat Masoumeh in Qom, as no. 1400. This paper aims to study the visual and structural features of this carpet in relation to the patterns of the tomb ceiling. The results suggest that the design of the dodecagon carpet is influenced by the motifs of the tomb ceiling, in the framework of the Safavid art. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The administrative system during Iran's Safavid and India's Mughal empires had a complex structure. During that era, writing, recording, and dispatching of royal decrees as well as administrative, judicial, revenue figures, and rulings were carried out by three administrative divisions dealing with composition, execution, and judiciary. Such documents are exiting in two primary and secondary forms and their compositions are varied based on their themes. The components of documents are also distinguished in terms of their header, seal, and monogram. To prevent any type of forgery, they went through lengthy and complicated stages. These documents show the evolution of the bureaucratic system in both dynasties and were issued for purposes such as appointments, grants, exemptions, contracts, treaties, and so on. The research method applied in the present research is based sources extracted from library and archival materials and then the court documents of both Safavid and Mughals were compared and analyzed through the descriptive-analytical method. Research findings show that different administrative units were under the supervision of the minister (vazir), the second powerful figure after the King, who in fact led state, financial and judicial affairs. Although both dynasties had common roots, they created one of the most effective executive systems of their time by upgrading those prevalent in previous empires. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Official historians are often part of the government and their writings reflect the views and policies of the ruling system. They usually try to present a narrative that is consistent with the government’s thinking and attitudes. However, as far as the official historians of Afshariya are concerned, the matter was complicated by the political and religious complications, the fall of the Safavid dynasty and the rule of Mahmud, and the developments that led to the rise of Nader Shah. Moreover, Nader Shah pursued particular and different approaches against the Safavids. Therefore, Afshari historians found themselves in a complicated situation. Therefore, it was difficult for these historians to tell the history of the Safavids and their fall. The problem is, under such difficult circumstances, how did the Afsharian historians portray Nader's relationship with the Safavid legacy and his clashes with the Safavids? The author tries to evaluate the process and method of narration of Afshariya historians about the Safavids in those special and complex conditions with a descriptive and analytical method. The article finally comes to the conclusion that Afshari historians inevitably viewed the Safavid period with suspicion and criticism. Because Nader, who was somewhat coincidentally associated with the heir of the Safavid dynasty, Shah Tahmasb II, was always thinking of dismissing him and whenever there was a suitable opportunity, he challenged the Safavids. Therefore, Afshari historians confirmed Nadir's attitude. They insisted on the correctness of his action against the Safavids and often condemned and blamed the Safavid rule.

Traditional artworks in different periods, especially after the advent of Islam in Iran, have benefited a lot from text adornment, due to the emphasis of this religion on science, literacy, and its positive approach to the use of calligraphy. Needless to say, the use of calligraphy was not merely decorative; it was used more to convey a message and show the status of an issue. Metal working in the Safavid period has many artistic and religious values in material and spiritual aspects. Safavid artists have used religious themes, mystical, and Quranic concepts in decorating their works. In their works, they have revealed the mysterious manifestations of mysticism, Islamic religion, and Shiite religion. Samples of metal objects with calligraphy with Quranic content and religious devotions have been investigated. The findings indicate that, in addition to having a decorative aspect, Safavid metalworking has taken its motifs from the common religious thought of that period, namely the Shiite religion. Inside their forms and motifs, these objects are created symbolically as an illustration of the beliefs, rituals, and faith of the Safavid period. Those metal objects that have Quranic verses have a special use, and they are generally used for religious purposes. The content of the verses used, above all, has determined the volume and practical importance of the verse; the artist, therefore, has mostly used the small chapters of the 30th part of the Quran, Ayat al-Korsi, and short verses that have a message in them. The contents of the present article have been collected by library methods; it has been prepared based on documents and in a descriptive-analytical and comparative way. In this article, only a limited number of objects have been examined, which have received more attention than the decorative aspect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the Safavid era, some prominent Iranian families migrated to India for various reasons. The emigration of these dynasties to the Mughal Empire (Gurkanis) real along with their numerous political and social experiences were naturally the source of considerable influence in various fields in India. Among these families was the Zik Family. This family, which had a brilliant record of military and political service during the reign of King Abbas I, was angered by Safavid court and was forced to leave Iran and seek refuge in the Mughal court. Employing a library technique and descriptive-analytical research method, the present study makes attempts to answer this question: what role did the Zik family play in the Indian Mughal era? The findings of this study confirm that the Zik family, using its military and political experience, played an effective role in confronting with Uzbeks and some of conquest of Mughal Empire. The effort of the f in civil and urban areas of some Mughal territories such as Kashmir and Kabul and their uninterrupted support for the spread of Persian language and Shiite religion in India was one of the important effects of this family's presence on the Mughal court of India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although it is not possible correctly to determine the date of the initial entry of Shiites into India, but the historical roots of the expansion of Shiism in India should be considered as the migration of some Iranians. Although these migrations existed before the Mongol invasion of Iran, they increased further after the Mongol invasion due to problems in Iran. After the Mongol invasion, different Shiite governments, such as dynasties of qutbShahis, the NizamShahis, Bahmanis and adilShahis, were formed in India. Iranian emigrant scholars played an important role in forming these governments and in the economic, cultural and international military arena. Also, along with political and governmental activities, they played a role in socio-economic and cultural activities of the community as well as the guidance of the people. The main issue of this study is to examine the performance of Iranian immigrants in the economic and social administrative, political, and social scale of the Shiite regimes in India. Also, we have tried to study spread of Shiism in India and the causes of turning Indian governments into Shiism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Coverage has been a symbol of culture in different eras and shows the social status of individuals and society. Iran is located in a special region and because of that; it has a people with different cultures and religions which has led to diversity in the way of life and coverage. According to the history of several thousand years, it has a richness in terms of its shape and geometry that can be seen in paintings of different periods. Coverage has many lexical meanings and refers to different aspects. In this article, two aspects of it are mentioned - which include the human element or the "Sarpoosh", and also the architectural element, which is called "Asemaneh". They have a special importance and place in the Iranian-Islamic culture and it is due to the existence of various religions that Iran is one of the richest civilizations in the world, and therefore it has various and original covers; as inspired by Western artists in different periods. Since clothing is the protector of individuals' privacy and architecture is the protector of society's privacy and the Sarpoosh is known as one of the main components of clothing and the Asemaneh is also known as one of the main components of architecture; both of them are related to humans, so the relationship between them cannot be ignored. The point to consider in the discussion of coverage is the factors that have affected them in various ways, one of the most important and fundamental of which is gender. Previous studies show that gender has been influential in the coverage of human beings, but how can this influence be observed in the coverage of Safavid period paintings? The main purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of human and architectural coatings on each other in paintings and to find out the answers to these questions: - Is there an influence between Sarpoosh-ha and Asemaneh-ha in the paintings of the Safavid period? - Which factors influence between them? - What role does gender play in this influence? Paintings in different periods are one of the most significant visual documents through which the painter has helped to recognize different periods by using creativity and special illustration, and of course, by using geometric and Islamic shapes to simplify historical events. Forms and geometries have played an important role in the artist's expressions, which change according to the context, and cause different emotions. In some cases, broken and sharp forms, and in other subjects, soft and curved forms are used. The painter has tried to help express the feelings and knowledge of that time by using the simplest forms and sometimes similarities, which can be seen in the coverings as well as the buildings. It should be noted that due to the nature of this article, in this study, the main focus is on the coverage depicted in the paintings. The best way to collect this information is to refer to paintings from different periods. In this research, we have tried to compare the Sarpoosh and the Asemaneh by selecting paintings with different contents and examine the existence of this influence on each other and also the geometric and formal relationship between them, and finally how to respond to this influence. Therefore, in this article, by collecting information and visual documents through library research method and selecting the studied samples from Safavid period paintings - with different contents such as epic and mystical - various types of coverings have been achieved and by the method of Semiotic analysis, which is of qualitative and descriptive-analytical type, they have been studied while this influence of human and architectural coverings on each other have been examined comparatively. The results of studies conducted in the above paintings indicate that there are several factors regarding the impact of the two on each other, and gender, as one of these factors, has played a colorful role which is noticeable in the paintings and can be observed which shows close relationship between them. In the Asemaneh-ha the presence of men is bold, and rough with majestic forms - which can be called masculine traits - which is also true in the Sarpoosh-ha, in contrast to the spaces where the presence of women has played a prominent role, soft, static and delicate forms - which can be called feminine traits - are used. It should be noted that in this article, coverage has been studied in terms of form and geometry, and due to the breadth of the content, they can be studied from other aspects (including color, etc.) as well.

Social and religious beliefs and values have always influenced architecture, urban planning and arts. After Islam, inspiration from Islamic values and beliefs are evident in the creation of artworks. Since the Safavid era, the Shia faith became the official faith of the Persians; the relationship between the faith and different fields (especially arts) grow stronger. Religious concepts and beliefs in the Safavid and Qajar periods are reflected on various objects including metal, pottery, tiles, paintings and even textiles. One of its effects has been in the decoration of weapons, especially swords and this effect is more obvious in the field of inscription of data. In these two periods, artists have used a variety of ornamental motifs such as floral, geometric, human, animal and epigraphic motifs to adorn the swords. The focus of the present study was on inscriptions containing religious themes on swords. Inscription or calligraphy can be considered as one of the most important decorative motifs of Islamic art, especially in metalworking where the manifestation of the spirit of Islamic art and its religious aspects have added to the value and importance of such designs among Islamic artists and craftsmen. Sword making is one of the industries that has been widespread in the Safavid and Qajar periods. Epigraphic motifs are one of the decorative components in the art of Islamic metalworking, and the Iranian artist and craftsman, in addition to registering the owner and the creator (artist), using Qur'anic verses and prayers, etc., has used calligraphy as a decorative element. The selection of swords from different types of weapons in this study is intended to limit the scope of the subject, as well as the considerable variety of inscriptions used on this weapon. The main purposes of this study have been to classify the characteristics of the swords' Inscriptions in terms of form and content in these periods, and to explain the relationship between the content of inscriptions and religious beliefs in the Safavid and Qajar periods. It should be noted that in these periods, the sword has had ceremonial, symbolic and military uses. During the Qajar period, with the expansion of the use of firearms, the ceremonial use of white arms, especially the sword, became more prominent, but this feature didn't diminish its combat effectiveness. The authors are concerned with answering two questions: what kinds of religious inscriptions have been used on the Safavid and Qajar swords, and what writing scripts and techniques have been used on swords? And finally, what was the relationship between the inscription's content and religious beliefs in the Safavid and Qajar periods? The present study uses a descriptive – comparative – analytical approach. The information is collected through library research (studying library resources) and field study (investigating the samples of various inside and outside museums) as well as studying 50 distinctive samples (of the 70 inscribed samples, 25 samples were selected from each period) from two periods which are mainly kept in museums inside of the country such as the National museum, Reza Abbasi, Mostazafan Foundation, Golestan Palace, Kerman Military Museums, Bandar Anzali, Afifabad Shiraz, as well as using the website of some of the museums and collections outside of the country such as the Victoria and Albert Museum, Hermitage Museum, Qatar Museum, Caravana Collection, Christie's Auction in the United States and Bonhams in London. According to the findings of the research, the religious inscriptions of the Safavid and Qajar swords indicate types of Qur'anic verses, qualified names of God, prayer and talisman, chivalrous narration, seeking help of prophets and Imams and Baduh that are often written in Naskh and Thuluth scripts; using inlaying and engraving techniques. The type of selected script is not related to the type of inscription. The importance and effect of religious inscriptions regarding the choice of these methods of working on metals, which had characteristics such as strength and resistance to wear and tear, as well as the ability to function with elegance and beauty, should not be ignored. According to the studies conducted on the selected samples, in terms of quantity, the use of different types of religious inscriptions on the swords of the Safavid and Qajar periods, Qur'anic inscriptions, prayer and talisman and qualified names of God had the highest statistical distribution. The early inscriptions, Baduh, seeking help of prophets and Imams and chivalrous narration had the next highest importance. The use of these types of inscriptions with talisman and protective aspect have been influenced by the religious beliefs and attitudes of the swords' artists and the owners, for the psychological support of warriors, as well as for association of God’s presence as a supporter and helper in war; even if the wars weren't aimed at strengthening religious and Islamic rites. Since the advent of Islam, up to present day, the Shiites and the followers of Imams have been trying to show their devotion and reverence for them in various forms, especially in artifacts.