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Military personnel are exposed to various stressful factors that can cause irreparable damage to the persons' mental health. Resilience is a trait that can help military personnel resist stressful factors. Today, armies seek new ways to boost resilience in soldiers. One of the proposed and under-study methods is the use of nootropics or smart drugs. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of smart drugs on cognitive resilience. For this purpose, the literature review was conducted with the search of databases, including Google Scholar, IranMedex, Scopus, PubMed, MEDLIB, Science Direct, and Web of Science. Resilience is a multilateral framework that includes various aspects such as biologic, physiologic, and sociologic. Although some studies emphasize the efficacy of nootropics in enhancing cognitive functions through different pathways, clinical trials are still limited in this area. Despite preliminary evidence, some people suggest cognitive enhancement potential for certain compounds؛ but important questions such as safety, efficacy, and individual variability remain unanswered. More research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms of action and potential interactions of nootropics on resilience and cognitive function. Also, long-term studies are necessary to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of these compounds, especially in the military population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Revista Foco (Interdisciplinary Studies Journal) is the property of Revista Foco and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Objective: The use of prescription stimulants for cognitive enhancement by healthy university students, identified as the largest cohort of cognitive enhancer (CE) users, is of growing interest. The purpose of this study was to look at the understanding, perception, experience, and level of access of CEs among healthy university students in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Methods: The study was conducted in six highly competitive university programmes. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 university students to discuss their own experiences and those of their friends and peers regarding the use of prescription stimulants. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven teaching faculty staff members (registered pharmacists and medical doctors) to explore their views on the use of CEs in their university. Results: Data were analysed thematically for the identification of themes and subthemes within the data using coding. It was found that, 'Adderall' was the most common prescribed CE drug and caffeine super strength pills were the most common non-prescribed CE drug, both reported to enhance concentration, motivation, and meet academic deadlines. Conclusions: It is expected that the findings of this study will be of interest to a wide range of services in UAE universities. This will enable them to raise awareness about the use of CEs among students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The so-called neurorights are emerging human rights, or rather reconfigurations of already existing human rights, seeking to address the impact of the possible misuse of neurotechnologies, which have the potential to become more invasive and harmful in the future if not regulated. The aim of specifying neurorights is to protect the dignity and autonomy of the individual in the face of neurotechnological advances. Recently, Chile proposed a Constitutional reform inspired by the neurorights, opening a debate. One of the proposed neurorights is fair and equitable access to cognitive enhancement, which will be the specific object of this perspective article. Starting from the legal proposal, we analyse and discuss some perspectives on cognitive enhancement, or “neuroenhancement”, which could be considered as part of enhancement neurotechnologies, pointing out that pharmacological enhancers, or “smart drugs”, might be considered as part of these enhancers. We present a classification of the dierent types of cognitive enhancements as it has been proposed in the literature, into which pharmacological cognitive enhancement can be included, concluding that there is currently no agreement amongst scholars and lawyers about the ethical consideration of pharmacological cognitive enhancement. We therefore argue that it is necessary for the legislator to explicitly address the issue in the proposed regulations, in order to take a clear position on the topic, as it has been done in the United Kingdom, where the pharmacological neuroenhancers have been explicitly excluded from the regulation. If pharmacological neuroenhancers are going to be considered neurotechnologies, then new law proposals should seek harmonization with the already existing legislation regulating pharmacological health and consumer rights (both globally, taking into account international drug laws, and locally, according to each country’s internal regulations) and of course, with the whole system of fundamental rights. Finally, we briefly discuss the ethical problem of equitable access to this new type of neurotechnologies (as part of the neurorights) and leave the debate open for new insights from the scientific community on the possible consequences of including (or not) pharmacological neuroenhancers as neurotechnologies for cognitive enhancement in the framework of the ethical and legal debate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-based nootropics are a diverse group of natural drugs that can improve cognitive abilities through various physiological mechanisms, especially in cases where these functions are weakened or impaired. In many cases, the nootropics enhance erythrocyte plasticity and inhibit aggregation, which improves the blood's rheological properties and increases its flow to the brain. Many of these formulations possess antioxidant activity that protects brain tissue from neurotoxicity and improves the brain's oxygen supply. They can induce the synthesis of neuronal proteins, nucleic acids, and phospholipids for constructing and repairing neurohormonal membranes. These natural compounds can potentially be present in a great variety of herbs, shrubs, and even some trees and vines. The plant species reviewed here were selected based on the availability of verifiable experimental data and clinical trials investigating potential nootropic effects. Original research articles, relevant animal studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials were included in this review. Selected representatives of this heterogeneous group included Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim., Ginkgo biloba L., Lepidium meyenii Walp., Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Paullinia cupana Kunth, Rhodiola rosea L., Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. The species are depicted and described, together with their active components and nootropic effects, and evidence of their efficacy is presented. The study provides brief descriptions of the representative species, their occurrence, history, and the chemical composition of the principle medicinal compounds, with uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosages, possible side effects, and contraindications. Most plant nootropics must be taken at optimal doses for extended periods before measurable improvement occurs, but they are generally very well tolerated. Their psychoactive properties are not produced by a single molecule but by a synergistic combination of several compounds. The available data suggest that including extracts from these plants in medicinal products to treat cognitive disorders can have substantial potential therapeutic benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The so-called neurorights are emerging human rights, or rather reconfigurations of already existing human rights, seeking to address the impact of the possible misuse of neurotechnologies, which have the potential to become more invasive and harmful in the future if not regulated. The aim of specifying neurorights is to protect the dignity and autonomy of the individual in the face of neurotechnological advances. Recently, Chile proposed a Constitutional reform inspired by the neurorights, opening a debate. One of the proposed neurorights is fair and equitable access to cognitive enhancement, which will be the specific object of this perspective article. Starting from the legal proposal, we analyse and discuss some perspectives on cognitive enhancement, or “neuroenhancement”, which could be considered as part of enhancement neurotechnologies, pointing out that pharmacological enhancers, or “smart drugs”, might be considered as part of these enhancers. We present a classification of the different types of cognitive enhancements as it has been proposed in the literature, into which pharmacological cognitive enhancement can be included, concluding that there is currently no agreement amongst scholars and lawyers about the ethical consideration of pharmacological cognitive enhancement. We therefore argue that it is necessary for the legislator to explicitly address the issue in the proposed regulations, in order to take a clear position on the topic, as it has been done in the United Kingdom, where the pharmacological neuroenhancers have been explicitly excluded from the regulation. If pharmacological neuroenhancers are going to be considered neurotechnologies, then new law proposals should seek harmonization with the already existing legislation regulating pharmacological health and consumer rights (both globally, taking into account international drug laws, and locally, according to each country's internal regulations) and of course, with the whole system of fundamental rights. Finally, we briefly discuss the ethical problem of equitable access to this new type of neurotechnologies (as part of the neurorights) and leave the debate open for new insights from the scientific community on the possible consequences of including (or not) pharmacological neuroenhancers as neurotechnologies for cognitive enhancement in the framework of the ethical and legal debate.

Copyright of Art of Healing / Sztuka Leczenia is the property of Jagiellonian University Medical College and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Electrochemically‐triggered payload release as a potential method for signal‐responsive "smart drug" development has been increasingly utilized in the field of modern pharmaceuticals. Among the various approaches to design electrochemically‐triggered payload release systems, the basis of using electrochemical reactions to develop sensing and releasing electrodes allows for increased diversity and adaptability with regards to signal, payload, and release conditions. In this review, an overview of the two main categories (pH‐independent and pH‐dependent) of electrochemically‐triggered release and their most commonly used subsets were summarized. These variations provided the foundational basis from which an electrochemically‐triggered payload release system can be designed and adapted to meet the demands of potential treatment requirements. Moreover, different practically demonstrated adaptions of electrochemically‐triggered payload release sensing and releasing electrodes were evaluated comprehensively and the advantages and disadvantages were discussed. Finally, some overarching recommendations for optimized use of these electrochemical systems were proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Scire Salutis is the property of CBPC - Companhia Brasileira de Producao Cientifica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Revista Tempo e Argumento is the property of Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Nootropics, also known as "smart drugs" are a diverse group of medicinal substances whose action improves human thinking, learning, and memory, especially in cases where these functions are impaired. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the potential effectiveness and importance of nootropics. Based on their nature and their effects, this heterogeneous group of drugs has been divided into four subgroups: classical nootropic compounds, substances increasing brain metabolism, cholinergic, and plants and their extracts with nootropic effects. Each subgroup of nootropics contains several main representatives, and for each one, its uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosage, and possible side effects and contraindications are discussed. For the nootropic plant extracts, there is also a brief description of each plant representative, its occurrence, history, and chemical composition of the medicinal part. Lastly, specific recommendations regarding the use of nootropics by both ill and healthy individuals are summarized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, people in the United States and other countries have been using smart drugs, called nootropic or cognitive enhancers, to improve concentration and memory learning skills. However, these drugs were originally prescribed for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and dementia, and their efficacy in healthy people has not yet been established. We focused on acetylcholine in the hippocampus, which is responsible for memory learning, and elucidate the long-term effects of smart drugs on the neural circuits. Smart drugs were administered orally in normal young mice for seven weeks. The hippocampus was sectioned and compared histologically by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining, immunohistochemistry for acetylcholine, and immunoelectron microscopy. There were no significant changes in acetylcholinesterase staining. However, in HE, we found perivascular edema, and choline acetyltransferase staining showed increased staining throughout the hippocampus and new signal induction in the perivascular area in the CA3, especially in the aniracetam and α-glyceryl phosphoryl choline group. Additionally, new muscarinic acetylcholine receptor signals were observed in the CA1 due to smart drug intake, suggesting that vasodilation might cause neuronal activation by increasing the influx of nutrients and oxygen. Moreover, these results suggest a possible new mechanism of acetylcholine-mediated neural circuit activation by smart drug intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an effort for better memory, greater motivation, and concentration, otherwise healthy individuals use pharmaceutical cognitive enhancers (PCEs), medicines for the treatment of cognitive deficits of patients with various disorders and health problems, to achieve greater productivity, efficiency, and performance. We examined the use of PCEs among 289 students at the Slovenian Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in the behavioral and psychosocial context (students' attitudes towards study, parents, health, leisure time, and work). Furthermore, we also addressed the immediate reasons, or the hypothesized connections of behavioral and psychosocial aspects, related to PCE misuse. The study consisted of a structured questionnaire, and chi-squared tests were used. An analysis of student statements revealed differences in students' and parents' attitudes toward good academic grades. In addition, students chose among 17 values related to relationships with parents, friends, partners, careers, study obligations, leisure, hobbies, material goods, appearance, and the future, and assessed their importance. Regardless of the group they belonged to, young people cited the same values among the most important. Good grades and parental opinions have proven to be key factors in the context of PCE abuse. This research was the first study to examine the relation between PCE misuse and the role of different behavioral and psychosocial factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Smart drugs are among the most common drugs used by students. It is estimated that they are second in incidence after cannabis. Although they are usually used for diseases such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dementia, in most cases the use of smart drugs is illegal and without a prescription. Methodological issues: A systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. SCOPUS, Medline (using PubMed as a search engine), Embase, Web of Sciences, and Google Scholar were used as search engines from January 1, 1980 to June 1, 2021 to evaluate the association between smart drugs and neuro-enhancement. A total of 4715 articles were collected. Of these, 295 duplicates were removed. A total of 4380 articles did not meet the inclusion criteria. In conclusion, 48 articles were included in the present systematic review. Results: Most of the studies were survey studies, 1 was a prospective longitudinal study, 1 was a cross-over study, and 1 was an experimental study in an animal model (rats). The largest group of consumers was school or university students. The most frequent reasons for using smart drugs were: better concentration, neuro enhancement, stress reduction, time optimization, increased wake time, increased free time, and curiosity. There are conflicting opinions, in fact, regarding their actual functioning and benefit, it is not known whether the benefits reported by consumers are due to the drugs, the placebo effect or a combination of these. The real prevalence is underestimated: it is important that the scientific community focus on this issue with further studies on animal models to validate their efficacy.

This article aims at questioning the promise of cognitive optimization based on the promotion of substances classified as “nootropics”. This paper focuses on the circulation of this promise and the products that support it, as well as on contemporary practices resulting from this market and the new possibilities offered by the Internet. First, I retrace the scientific, media and commercial history of modafinil, a drug presented as the reference smart drug in this perspective of self-optimization. Secondly, I analyse the French nootropics market and its promoters. I highlight the circulation of French dietary supplements, in the form of a grey market of pharmacological recycling through the promotion of old or new substances. I also discuss the conditions of performativity of this promise of cognitive optimization by focusing on the argumentative assembly used by the promoters of these practices and its embodied dimension.

Plant-based nootropics are a diverse group of natural drugs that can improve cognitive abilities through various physiological mechanisms, especially in cases where these functions are weakened or impaired. In many cases, the nootropics enhance erythrocyte plasticity and inhibit aggregation, which improves the blood’s rheological properties and increases its flow to the brain. Many of these formulations possess antioxidant activity that protects brain tissue from neurotoxicity and improves the brain’s oxygen supply. They can induce the synthesis of neuronal proteins, nucleic acids, and phospholipids for constructing and repairing neurohormonal membranes. These natural compounds can potentially be present in a great variety of herbs, shrubs, and even some trees and vines. The plant species reviewed here were selected based on the availability of verifiable experimental data and clinical trials investigating potential nootropic effects. Original research articles, relevant animal studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials were included in this review. Selected representatives of this heterogeneous group included Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim., Ginkgo biloba L., Lepidium meyenii Walp., Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Paullinia cupana Kunth, Rhodiola rosea L., Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. The species are depicted and described, together with their active components and nootropic effects, and evidence of their efficacy is presented. The study provides brief descriptions of the representative species, their occurrence, history, and the chemical composition of the principle medicinal compounds, with uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosages, possible side effects, and contraindications. Most plant nootropics must be taken at optimal doses for extended periods before measurable improvement occurs, but they are generally very well tolerated. Their psychoactive properties are not produced by a single molecule but by a synergistic combination of several compounds. The available data suggest that including extracts from these plants in medicinal products to treat cognitive disorders can have substantial potential therapeutic benefits.

Zornia latifolia is a plant suspected to possess psychoactive properties and marketed as a marijuana substitute under the name 'maconha brava'. In this study, the effects of fractions obtained from a 2-propanol extract of aerial portions of the plant were determined by multielectrode array (MEA) analyses on cultured networks of rat cortical neurons. Lipophilic (ZL_lipo, mainly containing flavonoid aglycones), and hydrophilic (ZL_hydro, mainly containing flavonoid glycosides) fractions were initially obtained from the raw extract. ZL_lipo significantly inhibited mean firing rate (MFR) and mean bursting rate (MBR) of MEA recordings, while ZL_hydro induced no inhibition. Column chromatography separation of ZL_lipo yielded five fractions (ZL1-ZL5), among which ZL1 induced the strongest MFR and MBR inhibition. NMR and HPLC-MS analyses of ZL1 revealed the prevalence of the common flavonoids genistein (1) and apigenin (2) (in about a 1:1 ratio), and the presence of the rare flavone syzalterin (6,8-dimethylapigenin) (3) as a minor compound. Exposures of MEA to apigenin and genistein standards did not induce the MFR and MBR inhibition observed with ZL1, whereas exposure to syzalterin standard or to a 1:9 mixture syzalterin-genistein induced effects similar to ZL1. These inhibitory effects were comparable to that observed with high-THC hashish, possibly accounting for the plant psychoactive properties. Data indicate that Z. latifolia, currently marketed as a free herbal product, should be subjected to measures of control. In addition, syzalterin showed distinctive pharmacological properties, opening the way to its possible exploitation as a neuroactive drug. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trojan horse technology institutes a potentially promising strategy to bring together a diagnostic or cell-based drug design and a delivery platform. It provides the opportunity to re-engineer a novel multimodal, neurovascular detection probe, or medicine to fuse with blood-brain barrier (BBB) molecular Trojan horse. In Alzheimer’s disease (AD) this could allow the targeted delivery of detection or therapeutic probes across the BBB to the sites of plaques and tangles development to image or decrease amyloid load, enhance perivascular Aβ clearance, and improve cerebral blood flow, owing principally to the significantly improved cerebral permeation. A Trojan horse can also be equipped with photosensitizers, nanoparticles, quantum dots, or fluorescent molecules to function as multiple targeting theranostic compounds that could be activated following changes in disease-specific processes of the diseased tissue such as pH and protease activity, or exogenous stimuli such as, light. This concept review theorizes the use of receptor-mediated transport-based platforms to transform such novel ideas to engineer systemic and smart Trojan detection or therapeutic probes to advance the neurodegenerative field.

Psychopharmacological cognitive enhancements could lead to a higher quality of life of healthy individuals with lower cognitive capacities, but the current regulatory framework does not seem to enable access to this group. This article discusses why Sen’s Capability Approach could open up such access, while two other modern social justice theories – utilitarianism and Rawls’ Justice as Fairness – could not. In short, the utilitarian approach is proven to be inadequate, due to practical reasons and having a low chance of real-world success. Rawls’ Justice as Fairness seems to be problematic because of conflicting stances that follow from his First Principle of Justice. The Capability Approach has the greatest chance of success in the context of these substances, because of arguments that can be identified under the banners of agency/self-respect and the way the public views those who take the capability path out of their poor situation. The article also discusses general and practical problems with psychopharmacological cognitive enhancement that should be addressed when writing new policy on this topic.

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) hold great promise for biomedical applications owing to their unique properties. The porous structures make MOFs excellent candidates for the delivery of different drugs; the flexibility in choosing metal ions and organic ligands makes it feasible to prepare MOFs with intrinsic antitumor activities and further devise MOF–drug synergistic systems; many other types of antitumor agents could also be developed using MOFs as the precursors/templates. Thus, the past two decades have witnessed the great development of MOF‐based drugs, especially in the antitumor field. This Minireview mainly focuses on the design and applications of MOF‐based antitumor agents. Four aspects covering the whole field are introduced: MOFs as carriers, MOFs as antitumor agents, MOF–drug synergistic systems, and MOF‐derived antitumor agents. The challenges and opportunities of MOFs for clinical antitumor applications are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nootropics, also known as “smart drugs” are a diverse group of medicinal substances whose action improves human thinking, learning, and memory, especially in cases where these functions are impaired. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the potential effectiveness and importance of nootropics. Based on their nature and their effects, this heterogeneous group of drugs has been divided into four subgroups: classical nootropic compounds, substances increasing brain metabolism, cholinergic, and plants and their extracts with nootropic effects. Each subgroup of nootropics contains several main representatives, and for each one, its uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosage, and possible side effects and contraindications are discussed. For the nootropic plant extracts, there is also a brief description of each plant representative, its occurrence, history, and chemical composition of the medicinal part. Lastly, specific recommendations regarding the use of nootropics by both ill and healthy individuals are summarized.

In an effort for better memory, greater motivation, and concentration, otherwise healthy individuals use pharmaceutical cognitive enhancers (PCEs), medicines for the treatment of cognitive deficits of patients with various disorders and health problems, to achieve greater productivity, efficiency, and performance. We examined the use of PCEs among 289 students at the Slovenian Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in the behavioral and psychosocial context (students’ attitudes towards study, parents, health, leisure time, and work). Furthermore, we also addressed the immediate reasons, or the hypothesized connections of behavioral and psychosocial aspects, related to PCE misuse. The study consisted of a structured questionnaire, and chi-squared tests were used. An analysis of student statements revealed differences in students’ and parents’ attitudes toward good academic grades. In addition, students chose among 17 values related to relationships with parents, friends, partners, careers, study obligations, leisure, hobbies, material goods, appearance, and the future, and assessed their importance. Regardless of the group they belonged to, young people cited the same values among the most important. Good grades and parental opinions have proven to be key factors in the context of PCE abuse. This research was the first study to examine the relation between PCE misuse and the role of different behavioral and psychosocial factors.

Psychopharmacological cognitive enhancements could lead to a higher quality of life of healthy individuals with lower cognitive capacities, but the current regulatory framework does not seem to enable access to this group. This article discusses why Sen’s Capability Approach could open up such access, while two other modern social justice theories – utilitarianism and Rawls’ Justice as Fairness – could not. In short, the utilitarian approach is proven to be inadequate, due to practical reasons and having a low chance of real-world success. Rawls’ Justice as Fairness seems to be problematic because of conflicting stances that follow from his First Principle of Justice. The Capability Approach has the greatest chance of success in the context of these substances, because of arguments that can be identified under the banners of agency/self-respect and the way the public views those who take the capability path out of their poor situation. The article also discusses general and practical problems with psychopharmacological cognitive enhancement that should be addressed when writing new policy on this topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trojan horse technology institutes a potentially promising strategy to bring together a diagnostic or cell-based drug design and a delivery platform. It provides the opportunity to re-engineer a novel multimodal, neurovascular detection probe, or medicine to fuse with blood-brain barrier (BBB) molecular Trojan horse. In Alzheimer's disease (AD) this could allow the targeted delivery of detection or therapeutic probes across the BBB to the sites of plaques and tangles development to image or decrease amyloid load, enhance perivascular Aβ clearance, and improve cerebral blood flow, owing principally to the significantly improved cerebral permeation. A Trojan horse can also be equipped with photosensitizers, nanoparticles, quantum dots, or fluorescent molecules to function as multiple targeting theranostic compounds that could be activated following changes in disease-specific processes of the diseased tissue such as pH and protease activity, or exogenous stimuli such as, light. This concept review theorizes the use of receptor-mediated transport-based platforms to transform such novel ideas to engineer systemic and smart Trojan detection or therapeutic probes to advance the neurodegenerative field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive enhancement, a rather broad-ranging principle, can be achieved in various ways: healthy eating and consistent physical exercise can lead to long-term improvements in many cognitive domains; commonplace stimulants such as caffeine, on the other hand, temporarily raise levels of alertness, attentiveness, and concentration; sedative substances are also used as an indirect form of enhancement to relax before an exam or an important meeting. Such approaches raise no ethical issue. Nonetheless, clinical research has led to the off-label use of drugs called nootropics or “smart drugs”, which can, under certain conditions, elicit some degree of cognition-improving effects: methylphenidate and modafinil can enhance working memory and concentration in healthy individuals, although the significance and effectiveness of such applications are dubious. Such “cognitive enhancement” methods, however, do raise multiple ethical issues, and their contentious nature has caused bioethical authorities to lay out opinions and recommendations meant to regulate their use. Most notably, the Italian Committee on Bioethics has extensively dealt with the spread of nootropics, which resulted in the Italian Code of Medical Ethics including “cognitive enhancement” drugs and their prescription by doctors as critical points, along with cosmetic surgery (the latest version of the Code, updated in December 2017, deals with the two separately, in Article 76 and 76 BIS). The United States Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues broadened the scope of cognitive enhancement techniques so as to include neural modifiers, i.e. mechanisms of brain and nervous system change: a much wider array of interventions, technologies, behaviors, and environmental conditions that may potentially affect several aspects of the human brain and nervous system. The potential of neuroscience to profoundly reshape society is nothing short of mind-blowing.

Sporting authorities and policy makers have warned of a radical increase in the availability and use of so-called 'smart' drugs, which putatively deliver cognitive enhancements in the form of improved focus, concentration, alertness, and rapid decision-making. Although the potential for health risks is well documented when it comes to performance enhancing drugs in sport, the health implications of cognitive enhancing drugs (CEDs) remain unclear. Objectives: This article aims to provide a foundational understanding about CEDs and their application in sport. It considers what little is known about the types, nature, impact, and implications of their use for athletes and sport policy. Method: A narrative literature review was undertaken to ascertain the emerging role of CEDs beyond their clinical use to treat prescribed disorders, including the limited studies in the sporting domain. This review also considered literature pertinent to the impact of CEDs in sport and the challenges for sport policy. Results: Given the prospects of negative health impacts, policy-makers interested in preventing and controlling the use of CEDs, as well as reducing harm to athletes at all levels of performance, need guidance. This article highlights multi-faceted concerns and shines a spotlight on key issues for sporting bodies to consider regarding the critical impact that widespread use and adoption of these substances might entail. Conclusion: While the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) is seemingly awake to the threat posed, actions to circumvent the spread of CEDs throughout sport are nascent and require greater understanding and attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive enhancement, a rather broad-ranging principle, can be achieved in various ways: healthy eating and consistent physical exercise can lead to long-term improvements in many cognitive domains; commonplace stimulants such as caffeine, on the other hand, temporarily raise levels of alertness, attentiveness, and concentration; sedative substances are also used as an indirect form of enhancement to relax before an exam or an important meeting. Such approaches raise no ethical issue. Nonetheless, clinical research has led to the off-label use of drugs called nootropics or "smart drugs", which can, under certain conditions, elicit some degree of cognition-improving effects: methylphenidate and modafinil can enhance working memory and concentration in healthy individuals, although the significance and effectiveness of such applications are dubious. Such "cognitive enhancement" methods, however, do raise multiple ethical issues, and their contentious nature has caused bioethical authorities to lay out opinions and recommendations meant to regulate their use. Most notably, the Italian Committee on Bioethics has extensively dealt with the spread of nootropics, which resulted in the Italian Code of Medical Ethics including "cognitive enhancement" drugs and their prescription by doctors as critical points, along with cosmetic surgery (the latest version of the Code, updated in December 2017, deals with the two separately, in Article 76 and 76 BIS). The United States Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues broadened the scope of cognitive enhancement techniques so as to include neural modifiers, i.e. mechanisms of brain and nervous system change: a much wider array of interventions, technologies, behaviors, and environmental conditions that may potentially affect several aspects of the human brain and nervous system. The potential of neuroscience to profoundly reshape society is nothing short of mind-blowing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There are reports of prescription stimulants being purchased online for use as cognitive enhancers or "smart drugs." Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate availability of modafinil and methylphenidate from internet suppliers from the perspective of a typical United Kingdom (UK) based customer. Methods: Using European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) internet snapshot methodology, we undertook an English language internet snapshot survey in July-August 2018 to gather information on the availability and price of modafinil and methylphenidate from online retailers. Results: A total of 55 modafinil and 14 methylphenidate websites were identified from which the drug could be purchased without a prescription. Minimum purchase quantities ranged from 10 to 90 tablets for modafinil and 1–1,005 tablets for methylphenidate with no apparent upper limit to the number that could be purchased. The price per tablet varied from £0.38–5.31 for modafinil and £0.16–5.70 for methylphenidate. Free shipping was offered if more than a certain amount was spent on 46 (83.6%) modafinil and 7 (50.0%) methylphenidate websites and discounts were offered on 43 (78.2%) modafinil and 4 (28.6%) methylphenidate websites. Conclusions: Modafinil and methylphenidate are widely available to purchase via internet from the UK without a prescription. The pricing on websites encourages users to buy greater quantities to qualify for discounts and free shipping. The quantities available suggest these purchases may be used in greater amounts than would be legitimately prescribed, increasing the risk of misuse or diversion to other individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modafinil is a central nervous system stimulant approved for the treatment of narcolepsy and sleep disorders. Due to its wide range of biochemical actions, modafinil has been explored for other potential therapeutic uses. Indeed, it has shown promise as a therapy for cognitive disfunction resulting from neurologic disorders like ADHD, and as a smart drug in non-medical settings. The mechanism(s) of actions underlying the therapeutic efficacy of this agent remains largely elusive. Modafinil is known to inhibit the dopamine transporter, thus decreasing dopamine reuptake following neuronal release, an effect shared by addictive psychostimulants. However, modafinil is unique in that only a few cases of dependence on this drug have been reported, as compared to other psychostimulants. Moreover, modafinil has been tested, with some success, as a potential therapeutic agent to combat psychostimulant and other substance use disorders. Modafinil has additional, but less understood, actions on other neurotransmitter systems (GABA, glutamate, serotonin, norepinephrine, etc.). These interactions, together with its ability to activate selected brain regions, are likely one of the keys to understand its unique pharmacology and therapeutic activity as a CNS stimulant. In this chapter, we outline the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of modafinil that suggest it has an "atypical" CNS stimulant profile. We also highlight the current approved and off label uses of modafinil, including its beneficial effects as a treatment for sleep disorders, cognitive functions, and substance use disorders., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Research shows that various pharmaceuticals can offer modest cognition enhancing effects for healthy individuals. These finding have caused some academics to support liberal use of pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE) in schools and universities. This approach partially arises from arguments implying there is little moral justification for regulating such drugs. In this paper, I argue against the liberal use of PCE on epistemic grounds. According to Charles Taylor, emotions and behaviour are epistemically valuable because they tell us meaningful things about reality. Hence, an accurate interpretation of students' emotions and behaviour in context is crucial to support an effective and ethical educational process. This paper supports the assertion that PCE might alter emotions and behaviour, and thereby distort the interpretation of the educational situation by students, educators and policy makers. Therefore, when discussing whether or not to regulate PCE we should be mindful of these epistemic concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The debate about the desirability of using drugs to enhance human skills encompasses cognitive abilities such as memory and attention, and moral capacities such as emotional empathy and a sense of fairness. These two strands of literature in bioethics have grown relatively independent from each other, and an implicit framing assumption has emerged suggesting that apparently morally neutral cognitive capacities and paradigmatically moral capacities are distinct and vary independently of each other. Here, we identify key distinctions between competing accounts of cognitive enhancement and moral enhancement and argue that, despite the polarized nature of the bioethical debate, cognitive and moral capacities are intertwined. For example, moral behavior can be improved by enhancing “morally neutral” abilities such as attention span; and cognitive skills can be honed by means of socio-moral interaction. Further, cognitive skill is frequently assigned the abstract status of virtue and treated in the same way as more paradigmatically “moral” traits. We argue that the distinction between moral and cognitive enhancement is more apparent than real, since despite being nominally treated as distinct, cognitive and moral skills are frequently interdependent. As such we present evidence to support the claim that the enhancement of these two kinds of capacities cannot be clearly disaggregated from each other in the way that the theoretical poles of the debate in the literature suggest. We synthesize relevant scientific and bioethical literature and combine it with a line of analysis derived from Peter Hacker to show more clearly the terms of what can be said intelligibly about cognitive and moral skills and their enhancement. As a result of this analysis, we conclude that ethical questions in human bioenhancement are only fully intelligible at the level of persons imbued with feelings, thoughts, intentions, desires, values, and abilities, embedded within a particular social context, rather than at the level of pharmacological modulation of particular cognitive or affective capacities which, though conceptually distinguishable, in the embodied context of moral agency are profoundly intertwined.

Since two decades, neuroenhancement is a major topic in neuroethics and still receives much attention in the scholarly literature as well as in public media. In contrast to high hopes at the beginning of the “Decade of the Brain” in the United States and Europe that we subsume under the “pharmacological optimism hypothesis,” recent evidence from clinical neuroscience suggests that developing drugs that make healthy people smarter is even more difficult than finding new treatments for patients with mental disorders. However, cognitive enhancing drugs even for patients with impaired intellectual performance have not been successfully developed yet and new drugs that might have a disruptive impact on this field are unlikely to be developed in the near future. Additionally, we discuss theoretical, empirical, and historical evidence to assess whether cognitive enhancement of the healthy is common or even epidemic and if its application will further increase in the near future, as suggested by the “neuroenhancement prevalence hypothesis.” Reports, surveys, and reviews from the 1930s until today indicate that psychopharmacological neuroenhancement is a fact but less common than often stated, particularly in the public media. Non-medical use of psychostimulants for the purpose of cognitive enhancement exists since at least 80 years and it might actually have been more common in the past than today. Therefore, we conclude that the pharmacological optimism hypothesis and neuroenhancement prevalence hypotheses have to be rejected and argue that the neuroenhancement debate should take the available evidence more into account.

The debate about the desirability of using drugs to enhance human skills encompasses cognitive abilities such as memory and attention, and moral capacities such as emotional empathy and a sense of fairness. These two strands of literature in bioethics have grown relatively independent from each other, and an implicit framing assumption has emerged suggesting that apparently morally neutral cognitive capacities and paradigmatically moral capacities are distinct and vary independently of each other. Here, we identify key distinctions between competing accounts of cognitive enhancement and moral enhancement and argue that, despite the polarized nature of the bioethical debate, cognitive and moral capacities are intertwined. For example, moral behavior can be improved by enhancing "morally neutral" abilities such as attention span; and cognitive skills can be honed by means of socio-moral interaction. Further, cognitive skill is frequently assigned the abstract status of virtue and treated in the same way as more paradigmatically "moral" traits. We argue that the distinction between moral and cognitive enhancement is more apparent than real, since despite being nominally treated as distinct, cognitive and moral skills are frequently interdependent. As such we present evidence to support the claim that the enhancement of these two kinds of capacities cannot be clearly disaggregated from each other in the way that the theoretical poles of the debate in the literature suggest. We synthesize relevant scientific and bioethical literature and combine it with a line of analysis derived from Peter Hacker to show more clearly the terms of what can be said intelligibly about cognitive and moral skills and their enhancement. As a result of this analysis, we conclude that ethical questions in human bioenhancement are only fully intelligible at the level of persons imbued with feelings, thoughts, intentions, desires, values, and abilities, embedded within a particular social context, rather than at the level of pharmacological modulation of particular cognitive or affective capacities which, though conceptually distinguishable, in the embodied context of moral agency are profoundly intertwined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To assess the prevalence and factors associated with stimulant and depressant pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE) drug use among Norwegian students. Design: In the first wave (T1), 28,553 students were invited to participate, of whom 9370 (32.8%) responded and completed the survey (mean age = 24.9 years, 63.5% female). One year later (T2) those who had responded to some items at T1 were invited to participate in a follow-up survey, where 4783 (47.2%) responded and completed the survey (mean age = 24.8 years, 64.8% female). Results: Lifetime prevalence of stimulant PCE drug use was 2.1% at T1 and 3.6% at T2. The lifetime prevalence of depressant PCE drug use was 1.5% at T1 and 3.3% at T2. Stimulant PCE drug use at T2 was predicted by low scores on agreeableness and anxiety, high scores on intellect/openness, and alcohol use, and stimulant and depressant PCE drug use at T1; while depressant PCE drug use at T2 was predicted by low scores on extroversion, high scores on conscientiousness, intellect/openness, and anxiety, and stimulant and depressant PCE drug use at T1. Conclusions: The rates of stimulant and depressant PCE drug use increased from T1 to T2. Pharmacological cognitive enhancement drug use may be explained by a combination of a motivation for improving academic achievements and a general inclination towards substance use. The current results may suggest that stimulant PCE drug users are more antisocial and indifferent to rules, while depressant PCE drug users are more motivated by coping with stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dried herbal preparations, based on “Zornia latifolia,” are commonly sold on web, mainly for their supposed hallucinogenic properties. In this work, we demonstrate that these commercial products contain a different Fabacea, i.e., Stylosanthes guianensis, a cheaper plant, widely cultivated in tropical regions as a fodder legume. We were provided with plant samples of true Zornia latifolia from Brazil, and carried out a thorough comparison of the two species. The assignment of commercial samples was performed by means of micro-morphological analysis, DNA barcoding, and partial phytochemical investigation. We observed that Z. latifolia contains large amounts of flavonoid di-glycosides derived from luteolin, apigenin, and genistein, while in S. guianensis lesser amounts of flavonoids, mainly derived from quercetin, were found. It is likely that the spasmolytic and anxiolytic properties of Z. latifolia, as reported in traditional medicine, derive from its contents in apigenin and/or genistein. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since two decades, neuroenhancement is a major topic in neuroethics and still receives much attention in the scholarly literature as well as in public media. In contrast to high hopes at the beginning of the "Decade of the Brain" in the United States and Europe that we subsume under the "pharmacological optimism hypothesis," recent evidence from clinical neuroscience suggests that developing drugs that make healthy people smarter is even more difficult than finding new treatments for patients with mental disorders. However, cognitive enhancing drugs even for patients with impaired intellectual performance have not been successfully developed yet and new drugs that might have a disruptive impact on this field are unlikely to be developed in the near future. Additionally, we discuss theoretical, empirical, and historical evidence to assess whether cognitive enhancement of the healthy is common or even epidemic and if its application will further increase in the near future, as suggested by the "neuroenhancement prevalence hypothesis." Reports, surveys, and reviews from the 1930s until today indicate that psychopharmacological neuroenhancement is a fact but less common than often stated, particularly in the public media. Non-medical use of psychostimulants for the purpose of cognitive enhancement exists since at least 80 years and it might actually have been more common in the past than today. Therefore, we conclude that the pharmacological optimism hypothesis and neuroenhancement prevalence hypotheses have to be rejected and argue that the neuroenhancement debate should take the available evidence more into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It's a small wonder. Yes, nanotechnology is already touching our lives for better. The recent progress in the field of medicine has been phenomenal. None could have ever imagined that the Nanotechnology would have such a promising and extensive application in medical sciences. Right from developing newer therapeutics and imaging techniques to targeted drug delivery you can name it all. Nanotechnology science is still in its nascent stage with a long way to go. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter. Manipulation of matter on a very small scale is Nanotechnology and its utilization in medicine is Nanomedicine. In fact in recent times no other branch has seen the amalgation of such varied disciplines including physicists, chemists, engineers and biologists. Nanotechnology is still a very nascent science. It needs to grow and as its grows its true virtues and vices would come to fore. At the most now we can say that it has a very promising future. The genesis of nanotechnology can be traced to the promise of revolutionary advances across medicine, communications, genomics and robotics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Few empirical studies in the UK have examined the complex social patterns and values behind quantitative estimates of the prevalence of pharmacological cognitive enhancement (PCE). We conducted a qualitative investigation of the social dynamics and moral attitudes that shape PCE practices among university students in two major metropolitan areas in the UK. Our thematic analysis of eight focus groups ( n = 66) suggests a moral ecology that operates within the social infrastructure of the university. We find that PCE resilience among UK university students is mediated by normative and cultural judgments disfavoring competitiveness and prescription drug taking. PCE risk can be augmented by social factors such as soft peer pressure and normalization of enhancement within social and institutional networks. We suggest that moral ecological dynamics should be viewed as key mechanisms of PCE risk and resilience in universities. Effective PCE governance within universities should therefore attend to developing further understanding of the moral ecologies of PCE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

2-[(Diphenylmethyl)sulfinyl]acetamide (modafinil) is commonly prescribed for the treatment of narcolepsy. Increasing popularity and off-label use as a cognitive enhancer has resulted in a reputation as an intelligence boosting 'wonder drug'. Common alternatives available from online shops and other retail outlets include 2-[(diphenylmethyl)sulfinyl]- N-hydroxyacetamide (adrafinil), 2-{[bis(4-fluorophenyl)methyl]sulfinyl}acetamide (CRL-40,940), 2-{[bis(4-fluorophenyl)methyl]sulfinyl}- N-hydroxyacetamide (CRL-40,941), and N-methyl-4,4-difluoro-modafinil (modafiendz), respectively. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is a common tool used in forensic and clinical analysis but there is a potential for inducing analysis-related ambiguities. This study reports on the thermal degradation of modafinil, modafinic acid, adrafinil, CRL-40,940, and CRL-40,941 due to exposure to the heated GC injection port dissolved in a variety of solvents. Key degradation products common to modafinil, modafinic acid, and adrafinil analysis included diphenylmethanol and 1,1,2,2-tetraphenylethane (TPE), the latter of which was verified by its synthesis and characterization by x-ray crystallography. The investigated compounds were also characterized by 1H and 13C NMR. Diphenylmethane and thiobenzophenone were also identified in some instances. TPE formation was suggested to involve the generation of a benzhydrylium ion and its reaction with the sulfoxide oxygen of the parent compound to give an oxysulfonium intermediate. Correspondingly, the fluorinated TPE analogue was formed during heat-induced degradation of modafiendz, CRL-40,940 and CRL-40,941, respectively. When a mixture of modafinil (non-fluorinated) and modafiendz (fluorinated) were subjected to GC analysis, 4,4'-(2,2-diphenylethane-1,1-diyl)bis(fluorobenzene) was detected as a third cross reaction product in addition to the two expected TPE analogues. These observations served as a reminder that the seemingly straightforward implementation of GC-MS analysis can lead to challenges during routine analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Six collected phenidates, i.e., 4-methylmethylphenidate, 3,4-dichloromethylphenidate, ethylphenidate, 3,4-dichloroethylphenidate, ethylnaphthidate, and N-benzyl-ethylphenidate were fully characterized by means of X-ray, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS), attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) and GC solid-state IR analysis. Crystallography revealed the exclusive presence of the threo-configuration. Steric crowding induced by N-benzyl substitution at the piperidine moiety prompted an adoption of an unexpected axial positioning of substituents on the piperidine moiety in the crystal state as opposed to the exclusive equatorial positioning encountered in N-unsubstituted phenidate analogues. Gas phase computations of the relative lowest energy conformers confirm that the axial positioning appears to be favoured over the equatorial positioning; in solution, however, equatorial positioning is predominant according to nuclear Overhauser effect experiments. All samples, mainly originating from China, had a good to very good degree of purity indicative of their professional chemical synthesis. Routine analysis of these drugs by GC-MS revealed thermal decomposition of phenidate analogues in the injection port and/or on column to 2-aryl-ethyl-acetates and 2,3,4,5-tetrahydropyridines. The decomposition pathway was suggested to proceed via a 6-membered transition state which was supported by density functional theory (DFT) computations. Fragmentation pathways of decomposition products as well as the corresponding electron ionization (EI) mass spectra are provided. The thermal instability might thus render smoking or 'vaping' of these drugs a less effective route of administration. The analytical fingerprints of six structurally diverse phenidate analogues provide a helpful reference to forensic chemists in charge of identifying new psychoactive substances. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this essay we argue that taking smart drugs by students within academia should be considered to be a moral cheating and, what is more, could possibly have destructive social consequences for academia practice. The critique draws on MacIntyre's analyses of virtues, internal goods and practices. This theory shows that using smart drugs to improve one's abilities threatens the nature of the academia practice by replacing the internal goods by the external ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The so-called neurorights are emerging human rights, or rather reconfigurations of already existing human rights, seeking to address the impact of the possible misuse of neurotechnologies, which have the potential to become more invasive and harmful in the future if not regulated. The aim of specifying neurorights is to protect the dignity and autonomy of the individual in the face of neurotechnological advances. Recently, Chile proposed a Constitutional reform inspired by the neurorights, opening a debate. One of the proposed neurorights is fair and equitable access to cognitive enhancement, which will be the specific object of this perspective article. Starting from the legal proposal, we analyse and discuss some perspectives on cognitive enhancement, or "neuroenhancement", which could be considered as part of enhancement neurotechnologies, pointing out that pharmacological enhancers, or "smart drugs", might be considered as part of these enhancers. We present a classification of the different types of cognitive enhancements as it has been proposed in the literature, into which pharmacological cognitive enhancement can be included, concluding that there is currently no agreement amongst scholars and lawyers about the ethical consideration of pharmacological cognitive enhancement. We therefore argue that it is necessary for the legislator to explicitly address the issue in the proposed regulations, in order to take a clear position on the topic, as it has been done in the United Kingdom, where the pharmacological neuroenhancers have been explicitly excluded from the regulation. If pharmacological neuroenhancers are going to be considered neurotechnologies, then new law proposals should seek harmonization with the already existing legislation regulating pharmacological health and consumer rights (both globally, taking into account international drug laws, and locally, according to each country's internal regulations) and of course, with the whole system of fundamental rights. Finally, we briefly discuss the ethical problem of equitable access to this new type of neurotechnologies (as part of the neurorights) and leave the debate open for new insights from the scientific community on the possible consequences of including (or not) pharmacological neuroenhancers as neurotechnologies for cognitive enhancement in the framework of the ethical and legal debate., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Cornejo-Plaza and Saracini.)