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Past research has identified that some individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities who engage in target behavior (e.g., aggression, self-injury) maintained by negative reinforcement engage in the behavior to escape or avoid social interaction specifically (i.e., social avoidance). However, assessment and treatment strategies for this function are understudied when compared to target behavior maintained by other forms of negative reinforcement. The current study builds on this limited research and demonstrates (a) a replication of functional analysis conditions and a negative reinforcement latency assessment to identify the specific types of social interaction that evoke target behavior, and (b) an intervention that includes stimulus fading, social conditioning, and differential reinforcement for five participants with autism spectrum disorder. Participant target behavior decreased within the intervention phase for four out of five participants. The implications of strategies to guide the use of antecedent-based treatment strategies are discussed for target behavior maintained by social avoidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social avoidance refers to active non-participation in social activities, which is detrimental to healthy interpersonal interaction for emerging adults. Social rejection is a kind of negative social evaluation from others making people feel social pain. However, how socially avoidant emerging adults process social feedback information after experiencing social rejection has received less attention. The current study aimed to explore the differences in social interaction feedback processing after social rejection between a socially avoidant group (n = 16) and a comparison group (n = 16) in a human-to-human interaction context. Computer game tasks with two types of interaction (cooperation and competition) were used to record the event-related potentials when receiving social interaction feedback in two conditions (social rejection and control condition). The results showed that (1) the socially avoidant group had lower reward positivity amplitudes than the comparison group when receiving social feedback; (2) the socially avoidant group presented larger P300 amplitudes in the social rejection condition than in the control condition, but the comparison group did not; and (3) social rejection evoked more negative N1 amplitudes in the socially avoidant and comparison groups. The findings suggest that socially avoidant emerging adults may have flaws in reward sensitivity during interpersonal interaction, and they might also exert more attentional and emotional resources to social feedback after social rejection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study analyzes the results of some research on social anxiety and the perception of control over anxiogenic events (PCEA) among students from the Faculty of Education Sciences - substitute teaching staff and students preparing for the teaching profession, aiming to identify the differences in these variables according to gender, field, stage of professionalization. The following were assumed: differences in the dimensions of social anxiety (distress and avoidance) and the perception of control over anxiogenic events depending on: the field of activity, gender, the level of perception of control over anxiogenic events (PCEA). The study included 168 adult students at the Faculty of Education Sciences from "Dimitrie Cantemir" Christian University of Bucharest, out of which 92 work in the education field (substitute teaching staff), and 76 in other fields of activity. The members of the research group are between 20 and 55 years old (M=37.66, DS=8.59), and in terms of gender - 12 participants are male, 156 are female. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yifu Chen,1– 3 Yu Xia,1,3,4 Menghao Ren,1,3,4 Wei Zheng,2 Xiao Wang,2 Feng Gao2 1Center for Mind and Brain Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, People’s Republic of China; 2Hunan Railway Professional Technology College, Zhuzhou, 412001, People’s Republic of China; 3China Research Center for Mental Health Education of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, People’s Republic of China; 4Cognition and Human Behavior Key Laboratory of Hunan Province, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410081, People’s Republic of ChinaCorrespondence: Feng Gao, Hunan Railway Professional Technology College, Zhuzhou, 412001, People’s Republic of China, Email 542322378@qq.comPurpose: We aim to explore the relationship between overparenting and social avoidance among emerging adults, and the mediating effects of peer attachment and gender differences.Participants and Methods: A total of 1161 Chinese college students completed the questionnaire. The structural equation model was established to validate the main effect model and the mediation model.Results: The results found that both paternal and maternal overparenting positively predicted social avoidance among emerging adults. Both attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety played a significant mediating role in the relationship between paternal overparenting and social avoidance. Attachment anxiety played a significant mediating role in the relationship between maternal overparenting and social avoidance, while, the mediating effect of attachment avoidance was not significant. In addition, gender differences were found in the mediating effects of peer attachment. The mediating effect of attachment anxiety in males’ families had an opposite-gender matching effect, while in females’ families, the mediating effect of attachment avoidance had an opposite-gender matching effect.Conclusion: This study contributes to the understanding of the effects of overparenting on emerging adults, enriching empirical research in related fields.Keywords: overparenting, social avoidance, peer attachment, gender differences, emerging adults

Solitude behaviors encompass four types: positive solitude, eccentricity, social avoidance, and loneliness. These four types of solitude behaviors are not entirely independent but can co-occur within individuals. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore latent classes of solitude behaviors, their developmental patterns, and relevant influencing factors among college students. The Solitude Behavior Scale—Short Version was administered to a sample of college students. A total of 417 Chinese students completed a three-time longitudinal paper questionnaire. The data analysis was performed using Mplus 8.0 and SPSS 26.0. Harman's single-factor test, latent class analysis (LCA), and latent transition analysis (LTA) were employed for subsequent analysis. The results revealed three classes: low solitude, moderate solitude, and high solitude, which exhibited temporal changes. Social avoidance and loneliness could facilitate transitions between high solitude and moderate solitude. Females and first-grade students exhibited higher transition probabilities than males and students not in the first grade. The incidence of moderate solitude in the not-first-grade group was significantly higher than that in the first-grade group. Finally, this study offers new insights into the dynamics of solitude behaviors and their association with gender and age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the study is to explore the influence of self-esteem on the happiness levels of college students and the mediating roles of social avoidance and loneliness. 1021 college students between 18 and 24 years of age completed the Self-esteem Scale, General Well-being Scale, Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, UCLA Loneliness Scale and Interpersonal Trust Scale.And descriptive statistical analysis and correlation analysis, structural equation model analysis were conducted. The result turns out that Self-esteem negatively predicted the happiness levels of college students. Self-esteem indirectly predicted happiness through three paths: mediating the roles of social avoidance, mediating the roles of loneliness and the chain-mediated roles of social avoidance and loneliness in college students.Interpersonal Trust moderated the relationship between loneliness and happiness.The higher the self-esteem levels of the college students, the less happiness they experienced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the present study was to explore the relations between social avoidance, peer preference, loneliness, and social sensitivity among urban Chinese children. Participants were 951 children attending primary and middle schools from grade 3 to grade 7. Cross-sectional data were collected using self-report assessments and peer nominations. Results indicated that: (1) social avoidance positively predicted loneliness; (2) peer preference partially mediated the relation between social avoidance and loneliness; (3) social sensitivity moderated the mediating path through peer preference. The findings not only explain the mental health problems of avoidant children from the standpoint of social sensitivity and peer preference, but also have illuminating implications for guiding individual adaptation and mental health intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Mothers are more responsible for raising their children, and they are usually the main caregivers of disabled children. The present study aimed to determine the effectiveness of behavioral activation therapy on social avoidance in mothers of children with cerebral palsy. Material & Methods: This study with a quasi-experimental research design had a pre-test, post-test, and a control group. The research sample consisted of 40 mothers referred to Occupational Therapy Centers in Ilam, Iran, in 2021. Then, they were randomly assigned into an experimental group (n=20) and a control group (n=20). The experimental group received behavioral activation group therapy based on the protocol provided by Kanter, Bush, and Rush during eight 90-minute sessions in one group session per week[S1]. Information was collected using a social phobia questionnaire (SPI) by Connor et al. (2000) in two stages of pre- and post-interventions. Covariance analysis and SPSS software (version 27) were used for data analysis. Results: Based on the obtained results, at the end of the treatment, the social avoidance scores of the intervention group were significantly reduced compared to the control group (P

Past research has identified that some individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities who engage in target behavior (e.g., aggression, self-injury) maintained by negative reinforcement engage in the behavior to escape or avoid social interaction specifically (i.e., social avoidance). However, assessment and treatment strategies for this function are understudied when compared to target behavior maintained by other forms of negative reinforcement. The current study builds on this limited research and demonstrates (a) a replication of functional analysis conditions and a negative reinforcement latency assessment to identify the specific types of social interaction that evoke target behavior, and (b) an intervention that includes stimulus fading, social conditioning, and differential reinforcement for five participants with autism spectrum disorder. Participant target behavior decreased within the intervention phase for four out of five participants. The implications of strategies to guide the use of antecedent-based treatment strategies are discussed for target behavior maintained by social avoidance.

Introduction: Mothers are more responsible for raising their children, and they are usually the main caregivers of disabled children. The present study aimed to determine the effectiveness of behavioral activation therapy on social avoidance in mothers of children with cerebral palsy. Material & Methods: This study with a quasi-experimental research design had a pretest, post-test, and a control group. The research sample consisted of 40 mothers referred to Occupational Therapy Centers in Ilam, Iran, in 2021. Then, they were randomly assigned into an experimental group (n=20) and a control group (n=20). The experimental group received behavioral activation group therapy based on the protocol provided by Kanter, Bush, and Rush during eight 90-minute sessions in one group session per week[S1]. Information was collected using a social phobia questionnaire (SPI) by Connor et al. (2000) in two stages of pre- and post-interventions. Covariance analysis and SPSS software (version 27) were used for data analysis. Results:Based on the obtained results, at the end of the treatment, the social avoidance scores of the intervention group were significantly reduced compared to the control group (P<0.05). Discussion & Conclusion: The study showed that behavioral activation therapy has a favorable effect on reducing the severity of symptoms of social avoidance disorder in mothers of children with cerebral palsy. Therefore, this treatment is suggested as a complementary treatment along with drug treatments to improve psychological symptoms in these people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Psychological issues among adolescents represent a prevalent challenge in today's society. The purpose of this study is to explore the associations among moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, self-disclosure, social anxiety, and social avoidance in adolescents. Methods: This study collected cross-sectional data from 427 students in eight provincial key junior and senior high schools in the central China region of three provinces using snowball sampling and convenience sampling from July to August 2023. A structural equation model was employed to investigate the relationship between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and social avoidance among adolescents. Results: The findings indicate that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is negatively correlated with social anxiety (standardized coefficient = −0.219, p < 0.001) and positively correlated with self-disclosure (standardized coefficient = 0.454, p < 0.001). Social anxiety is negatively correlated with self-disclosure (standardized coefficient = −0.220, p < 0.001). Social avoidance is positively correlated with social anxiety (standardized coefficient = 0.461, p < 0.001) and negatively correlated with self-disclosure (standardized coefficient = −0.331, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The chain-mediated dual-path model between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and social avoidance is facilitated by social anxiety and self-disclosure. In other words, adolescents who engage in more moderate to high-intensity physical activities exhibit lower levels of social anxiety, and those who have a stronger inclination for self-disclosure tend to demonstrate lower levels of social avoidance. In light of these findings, it is recommended that the government, society, schools, and families collaborate synergistically to promote the holistic well-being of adolescents and advance the development of a healthier China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social avoidance and distress are the primary aspects of social anxiety. Nonautistic people with high levels of autistic traits are more likely to exhibit social avoidance and distress. However, research has yet to reveal how autistic traits induce social avoidance and distress. To fill this gap, the present study recruited 708 participants to complete the 25‐item Autism Spectrum Quotient, Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, Chinese Perceived Stress Scale, and Interpersonal Alienation Subscale. The results indicated that autistic traits significantly predicted social avoidance and distress in nonautistic people. In addition, autistic traits induced social avoidance and distress through perceived stress and interpersonal alienation, respectively. Importantly, perceived stress and interpersonal alienation (including the subdimensions of interpersonal alienation: sense of loneliness, sense of social isolation, and alienation between family members) partially mediated the relationships between autistic traits and social avoidance and distress. Overall, autistic traits predict social avoidance and distress via perceived stress and interpersonal alienation. This finding extends the hypothetical model of clinical anxiety in autism spectrum disorders. Furthermore, reducing perceived stress and interpersonal alienation in nonautistic people with high levels of autistic traits may be a valid intervention method to prevent and eliminate their social avoidance and distress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psoriasis is an autoimmune skin disease that often co‐occurs with psychological morbidities such as anxiety and depression, and psychosocial issues also lead psoriasis patients to avoid other people. However, the precise mechanism underlying the comorbidity of psoriasis and anxiety is unknown. Also, whether the social avoidance phenomenon seen in human patients also exists in psoriasis‐like animal models remains unknown. In the present study, anxiety‐like behaviours and social avoidance‐like behaviours were observed in an imiquimod‐induced psoriasis‐like C57‐BL6 mouse model along with typical psoriasis‐like dermatitis and itch‐like behaviours. The 11.7T resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging showed differences in brain regions between the model and control group, and voxel‐based morphometry showed that the grey matter volume changed in the basal forebrain region, anterior commissure intrabulbar and striatum in the psoriasis‐like mice. Seed‐based resting state functional connectivity analysis revealed connectivity changes in the amygdala, periaqueductal gray, raphe nuclei and lateral septum. We conclude that the imiquimod‐induced psoriasis‐like C57‐BL6 mouse model is well suited for mechanistic studies and for performing preclinical therapeutic trials for treating anxiety and pathological social avoidance in psoriasis patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. Panic disorder is a debilitating condition characterized by severe symptoms and social avoidance. Due to insufficient knowledge, this study examined the effectiveness of brief cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) on symptom severity and social avoidance in patients with panic disorder. Patients and Methods. In this randomized controlled trial (RCT), 44 patients were included in the Brief CBT group or the control group after addressing issues related to lost-to-follow-up. Panic disorder symptom severity (PDSS) and the work and social adjustment scale (WSAS) were used to assess symptom severity and social adjustment, respectively. Results. After one month of treatment, the total PDSS scores (1.79 vs. 4.47; P=0.0409) and WSAS scores (2.97 vs. 7.41; P=0.0015) in the brief CBT group were significantly lower compared to the control group. The study revealed that in the brief CBT group, the mean score of PDSS and WSAS significantly decreased from 21.53 to 1.79 (P<0.0001) and from 24.63 to 2.95 (P<0.0001), and in the control group from 19.59 to 4.47 (P<0.0001) in PDSS and from 22.18 to 7.41 (P<0.0001) in WSAS, respectively. Furthermore, the change in WSAS scores in the brief CBT group was independent of the decrease in PDSS. Conclusions. This study demonstrated that the application of brief CBT is an effective technique for reducing symptom severity and social avoidance in patients with panic disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: People with essential tremor (ET) can be subject to stigma, and some adopt avoidance behaviors. Characteristics associated with ET stigma and the relationship between perceived stigma and social dysfunction have not been studied. Objectives: To discern predictors of perceived stigma and social dysfunction in ET, and to identify potentially treatable psychological factors associated with social dysfunction. Methods: We surveyed ET patients (n = 158) on recalled stigma incidents and social dysfunction related to tremor, as well as clinical and demographic characteristics including tremor severity, and psychological constructs including anxiety, depression, mindfulness, resilience, and narcissism. Results: Worse tremor severity (Standardized beta [SB] 1.4, P < 0.001) especially among younger participants (interaction of age and tremor severity SB −0.9, P < 0.001) and presence of vocal tremor (SB 0.7, P = 0.002) predict perceived stigma. 53/157 (33.8%) participants met criteria for social dysfunction, employing maladaptive avoidance strategies. Scores for perceived stigma (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.2, P = 0.002), depression (OR 1.5, P = 0.004) and stigma psychological distress (OR 1.2, P = 0.001) as well as sex (OR 4.3 for females, P = 0.045) predicted social dysfunction. Conclusions: Depression and stigma psychological distress contribute to social dysfunction related to ET stigma. Treating these psychological factors may mitigate social avoidance behaviors prevalent among susceptible individuals: those who most perceive ET stigma, i.e. relatively younger patients with worse tremor or with vocal tremor, and in particular females who are more prone to social dysfunction than males with the same degree of perceived stigma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract Background Depression, anxiety, and stress are the main issues that affect the mental health of individuals. Solitude behavior, fear of missing out, and mental health are all closely related. Objective This study was intended to investigate the relationship between solitude behavior, fear of missing out, and mental health. Methods Short Form of Solitude Behavior Scale, Fear of Missing Out scale, and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 were employed in this study to investigate 616 college students. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 for basic data organization, and Mplus 8.3 was used to complete the analysis of the mediation model. Results (1) Positive solitude was positively associated with eccentricity and negatively related to loneliness; social avoidance positively correlated with eccentricity and loneliness. (2) Social avoidance and loneliness affected mental health through the mediating effect of fear of missing out, whereas positive solitude and eccentricity did not affect mental health through fear of missing out. Moreover, the results still held in the model with depression, anxiety, and stress as dependent variables. Conclusion The roles of different solitude behavior in the relationship between fear of missing out and mental health differed. Social avoidance and loneliness as not self-determined solitude could activate the fear of missing out, which could affect mental health.

Social avoidance refers to active non-participation in social activities, which is detrimental to healthy interpersonal interaction for emerging adults. Social rejection is a kind of negative social evaluation from others making people feel social pain. However, how socially avoidant emerging adults process social feedback information after experiencing social rejection has received less attention. The current study aimed to explore the differences in social interaction feedback processing after social rejection between a socially avoidant group (n = 16) and a comparison group (n = 16) in a human-to-human interaction context. Computer game tasks with two types of interaction (cooperation and competition) were used to record the event-related potentials when receiving social interaction feedback in two conditions (social rejection and control condition). The results showed that (1) the socially avoidant group had lower reward positivity amplitudes than the comparison group when receiving social feedback; (2) the socially avoidant group presented larger P300 amplitudes in the social rejection condition than in the control condition, but the comparison group did not; and (3) social rejection evoked more negative N1 amplitudes in the socially avoidant and comparison groups. The findings suggest that socially avoidant emerging adults may have flaws in reward sensitivity during interpersonal interaction, and they might also exert more attentional and emotional resources to social feedback after social rejection.

Solitude behaviors encompass four types: positive solitude, eccentricity, social avoidance, and loneliness. These four types of solitude behaviors are not entirely independent but can co-occur within individuals. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore latent classes of solitude behaviors, their developmental patterns, and relevant influencing factors among college students. The Solitude Behavior Scale—Short Version was administered to a sample of college students. A total of 417 Chinese students completed a three-time longitudinal paper questionnaire. The data analysis was performed using Mplus 8.0 and SPSS 26.0. Harman’s single-factor test, latent class analysis (LCA), and latent transition analysis (LTA) were employed for subsequent analysis. The results revealed three classes: low solitude, moderate solitude, and high solitude, which exhibited temporal changes. Social avoidance and loneliness could facilitate transitions between high solitude and moderate solitude. Females and first-grade students exhibited higher transition probabilities than males and students not in the first grade. The incidence of moderate solitude in the not-first-grade group was significantly higher than that in the first-grade group. Finally, this study offers new insights into the dynamics of solitude behaviors and their association with gender and age.

Background. Panic disorder is a debilitating condition characterized by severe symptoms and social avoidance. Due to insufficient knowledge, this study examined the effectiveness of brief cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) on symptom severity and social avoidance in patients with panic disorder. Patients and Methods. In this randomized controlled trial (RCT), 44 patients were included in the Brief CBT group or the control group after addressing issues related to lost-to-follow-up. Panic disorder symptom severity (PDSS) and the work and social adjustment scale (WSAS) were used to assess symptom severity and social adjustment, respectively. Results. After one month of treatment, the total PDSS scores (1.79 vs. 4.47; P=0.0409) and WSAS scores (2.97 vs. 7.41; P=0.0015) in the brief CBT group were significantly lower compared to the control group. The study revealed that in the brief CBT group, the mean score of PDSS and WSAS significantly decreased from 21.53 to 1.79 (P

The goal of the present study was to examine the moderating role of maternal depression in the links between social avoidance and indices of socio-emotional functioning among young children in mainland China. Participants were N = 211 children aged from 4–6 years (112 boys, 99 girls, Mage = 4.90 years, SD = 0.44) recruited from two public kindergartens in Shanghai, People's Republic of China. Multi-source assessments were employed, with mothers reporting their own symptoms of depression, as well as rating children's social withdrawal (i.e., social avoidance, shyness, unsociability), and teachers assessing indices of children's socio-emotional functioning at school (i.e., asocial behaviors, interpersonal skills, peer exclusion, internalizing problems). Among the results, social avoidance was positively associated with asocial behaviors, peer exclusion, and internalizing problems, as well as negatively associated with interpersonal skills. Moreover, as hypothesized, symptoms of maternal depression were found to exacerbate the relations between social avoidance and each of these outcome variables. Results are discussed in terms of the etiology and implications of social avoidance among young children in mainland China. Highlights: The study examined the moderating role of maternal depression in the links between social avoidance and indices of socio-emotional functioning among young children in mainland China. High levels of maternal depressive symptoms can exacerbate socially avoidant children's negative social adjustment. Low levels of maternal depressive symptoms can alleviate socially avoidant children's negative social adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study aimed to explore the moderating role of teacher-child relationships in the relations between social avoidance and social adjustment (i.e., prosocial behavior, peer exclusion, and anxious-fearful behavior) in Chinese migrant preschoolers. Methods: Participants were 148 migrant children aged 4-6 years (82 boys, Mage = 62.32, SD = 6.67) attending kindergartens in Shanghai, People's Republic of China. Mothers reported children's social avoidance, and teachers rated teacher-child relationships and children's social adjustment. Results: Results indicated that social avoidance was positively related to peer exclusion and negatively related to prosocial behavior. Teacher-child relationships moderated those associations. Specifically, teacher-child closeness buffered the relationship between social avoidance and peer exclusion, whereas teacher-child conflict exacerbated the relations between social avoidance and peer exclusion and anxious-fearful behavior. Conclusion: The current finding informs us of the importance of improving teacher-child closeness and reducing teacher-child conflict to buffer the negative adjustment among socially avoidant young children who migrated from rural-to-urban China. The findings also highlight the importance of considering the meaning and implication of social avoidance for migrant preschoolers in Chinese culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jeong-Hee Kim,1,2 Yo-Han Joo,1 Young-Don Son,1– 3 Hang-Keun Kim,1– 3 Jong-Hoon Kim1,3,4 1Neuroscience Research Institute, Gachon University, Incheon, Republic of Korea; 2Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Health Science, Gachon University, Incheon, Republic of Korea; 3Gachon Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology, Gachon University, Incheon, Republic of Korea; 4Department of Psychiatry, Gachon University College of Medicine, Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Republic of KoreaCorrespondence: Jong-Hoon Kim, Department of Psychiatry, Gachon University College of Medicine, Gil Medical Center, 1198 Guwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon, 21565, Republic of Korea, Tel +82 32 460 2696, Fax +82 32 472 8813, Email jhnp@chol.com Young-Don Son, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Health Science, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoe-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, 21936, Republic of Korea, Tel +82 32 820 4416, Email ydson@gachon.ac.krBackground: Previous research has shown that metabotropic glutamate receptor-5 (mGluR5) signaling is significantly involved in social avoidance. We investigated the relationship between levels of social avoidance and mGluR5 availability in drug-naïve young patients with major depressive disorder (MDD).Methods: Twenty non-smoking patients and eighteen matched non-smoking healthy controls underwent [11C]ABP688 positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging scans. The binding potential (BPND) of [11C]ABP688 was obtained using the simplified reference tissue model. Patients’ level of social avoidance was assessed using the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADS). For [11C]ABP688 BPND, the region-of-interest (ROI)-based between-group comparisons and correlations with SADS scores were investigated. The frontal cortices were chosen as a priori ROIs based on previous PET investigations in MDD, and on literature underscoring the importance of the frontal cortex in social avoidance.Results: Independent samples t-tests revealed no significant differences in [11C]ABP688 BPND in the frontal cortices between the MDD patient group as a whole and healthy controls. One-way analysis of variance with post-hoc tests revealed significantly lower BPND in the bilateral superior frontal cortex (SFC) and left middle frontal cortex (MFC) in MDD patients with low levels of social avoidance (L-SADS) than in healthy controls. The L-SADS patients also had significantly lower BPND in the medial part of the right SFC than both MDD patients with high levels of social avoidance (H-SADS) and healthy controls. The L-SADS patients also showed significantly lower BPND in the orbital parts of the SFC, MFC, and inferior frontal cortex than H-SADS patients. No significant group differences were found between H-SADS patients and healthy controls. The ROI-based correlation analysis revealed significant positive correlations between social avoidance levels and frontal [11C]ABP688 BPND in the entire patients.Conclusion: Our exploratory study shows significant differences in frontal mGluR5 availability depending on the level of social avoidance in drug-naïve non-smoking MDD patients, suggesting that social avoidance should be considered as one of the clinical factors involved in mGluR5 signaling changes in depression.Keywords: social avoidance, metabotropic glutamate receptor-5, positron emission tomography, [11C]ABP688, major depressive disorder

Background: Depression, anxiety, and stress are the main issues that affect the mental health of individuals. Solitude behavior, fear of missing out, and mental health are all closely related. Objective: This study was intended to investigate the relationship between solitude behavior, fear of missing out, and mental health. Methods: Short Form of Solitude Behavior Scale, Fear of Missing Out scale, and Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 were employed in this study to investigate 616 college students. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 for basic data organization, and Mplus 8.3 was used to complete the analysis of the mediation model. Results: (1) Positive solitude was positively associated with eccentricity and negatively related to loneliness; social avoidance positively correlated with eccentricity and loneliness. (2) Social avoidance and loneliness affected mental health through the mediating effect of fear of missing out, whereas positive solitude and eccentricity did not affect mental health through fear of missing out. Moreover, the results still held in the model with depression, anxiety, and stress as dependent variables. Conclusion: The roles of different solitude behavior in the relationship between fear of missing out and mental health differed. Social avoidance and loneliness as not self-determined solitude could activate the fear of missing out, which could affect mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Mobile phone addiction has a negative impact on the physical and mental health of college students, which has attracted extensive attention from scholars. Methods: In this study, we investigated the mechanism of the influence of selfesteem on mobile phone addiction among 694 college students using the SelfEsteem Scale, the Mobile Phone. Addiction Scale, the Peer Relationship Scale and the Social Avoidance and Distress Scale. Results: The results showed that (1) self-esteem significantly and negatively predicted mobile phone addiction; (2) self-esteem influenced mobile phone addiction through the mediating effect of social avoidance; (3) self-esteem influenced mobile phone addiction through the mediating effect of peer relationships; and (4) social avoidance and peer relationships played a chain mediating role in the influence of self-esteem on mobile phone addiction. Discussion: These findings can help researchers and educators better understand the underlying mechanisms of the relationship between self-esteem and mobile phone addiction and to provide practical and effective operational suggestions for the prevention and intervention of mobile phone addiction among college students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the nationwide sports event "Health Walk" held in Ji'an City, we divided the subjects into sports participation group and non-sports participation group to investigate the differences between the two groups in social avoidance and distress, psychological well-being, and mindfulness level. We also examined the mediating role of mindfulness and social avoidance and distress in whether to participate in sports activities and psychological well-being. In addition, we investigated citizens' approval of the government and their city, and collected basic information about the subjects. We used a 2 (sports participation, non-sports participation) * 2 (high social avoidance and distress, low social avoidance and distress) * 2 (high mindfulness level, low mindfulness level) mixed design. We measured the subjects using Watson's Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, the short version of Ryff's Psychological Weil-Being Questionnaire, the Chinese Short Version of the Five-Dimensional Mindfulness Scale, and general survey questionnaires. SPSS 27.0 and the PROCESS plug-in were used to process and analyze the data through descriptive statistics, independent sample t-tests, correlation analysis and mediation effect tests. The results showed that there were significant differences in social avoidance, distress, and mindfulness levels in whether to participate in sports activities (ps <0.001). Whether to participate in sports activities and psychological well-being were significantly correlated with mindfulness (t = 0.368, p <0.001; t = 0.250, p <0.01), and were significantly correlated with social avoidance and distress (t = -0.307, p <0.001; t = -0.443, p <0.001). Mindfulness and social avoidance fully mediated the influence of sports participation on psychological well-being (ps <0.001). Government nationwide sports events can effectively improve citizens' psychological well-being by increasing participants' mindfulness levels and reducing social avoidance and distress. At the same time, it has positive effects on citizens' approval of government agencies and improvement of physical and mental health, which is conducive to social development. We should encourage relevant departments and organizations in various cities to carry out similar nationwide and group sports activities in an orderly manner to promote people's physical and mental health and accelerate the recovery and development of social relations in the post-epidemic era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to explore links between social withdrawal subtypes and internalizing problems among children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were N = 748 children (387 girls) aged 7–11 years (M = 8.91, SD = 1.07) attending primary schools in Italy. Children completed an online questionnaire assessing subtypes of social withdrawal (i.e., shyness, social avoidance, unsociability) and indices of internalizing problems (i.e., social anxiety, loneliness, depression). Among the results, shyness was positively associated with social anxiety, depression, and loneliness. Unsociability was related to depression but not to social anxiety and loneliness. Social avoidance was positively related to loneliness and depression (particularly among older children) and negatively associated with social anxiety (particularly among boys). Results are also discussed in terms of the implications of the different subtypes of social withdrawal in late childhood and early adolescence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Psychological issues among adolescents represent a prevalent challenge in today’s society. The purpose of this study is to explore the associations among moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, self-disclosure, social anxiety, and social avoidance in adolescents. Methods: This study collected cross-sectional data from 427 students in eight provincial key junior and senior high schools in the central China region of three provinces using snowball sampling and convenience sampling from July to August 2023. A structural equation model was employed to investigate the relationship between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and social avoidance among adolescents. Results: The findings indicate that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is negatively correlated with social anxiety (standardized coefficient = −0.219, p < 0.001) and positively correlated with self-disclosure (standardized coefficient = 0.454, p < 0.001). Social anxiety is negatively correlated with self-disclosure (standardized coefficient = −0.220, p < 0.001). Social avoidance is positively correlated with social anxiety (standardized coefficient = 0.461, p < 0.001) and negatively correlated with self-disclosure (standardized coefficient = −0.331, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The chain-mediated dual-path model between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and social avoidance is facilitated by social anxiety and self-disclosure. In other words, adolescents who engage in more moderate to high-intensity physical activities exhibit lower levels of social anxiety, and those who have a stronger inclination for self-disclosure tend to demonstrate lower levels of social avoidance. In light of these findings, it is recommended that the government, society, schools, and families collaborate synergistically to promote the holistic well-being of adolescents and advance the development of a healthier China.

Although previous studies have demonstrated that appearance plays an important role in the avoidance of social contact among adolescent girls, the reasons for this remain unclear. The purpose of the study was to investigate this issue from the perspective of objectification theory. We investigated self-objectification, appearance comparison, self-esteem, and social avoidance among 262 Chinese middle adolescent girls (Mage = 15.97 years, ranging from 14 to 17) living in Guangdong province, China. The results showed a positive correlation between self-objectification and social avoidance, which was further mediated by appearance comparison and self-esteem. Moreover, girls with high levels of self-objectification were more likely to compare their appearance to others, which in turn, was linked to lower self-esteem, and subsequently correlated with greater social avoidance. These findings suggest that self-objectification may adversely influence adolescent girls' interpersonal well-being. Based on our results, interventions addressing social avoidance among adolescent girls may include reducing self-objectification, decreasing appearance comparison, and improving self-esteem. The findings of the present study provide a better understanding of the negative consequences of self-objectification by incorporating social avoidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Prolonged social withdrawal (PSW) or hikikomori and problematic internet use (PIU) have attracted the attention of mental health experts worldwide. The scientific literature suggests a complex relationship between these conditions and psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) or disorders. In the present cross-sectional study, we tested the role of PIU symptoms as a moderator of the relationship between symptoms of PSW and PLEs in a sample of 238 Italian emerging adults. Method: Data was collected using the 25-item Hikikomori Questionnaire, the Internet Disorder Scale, the Brief Prodromal Questionnaire, and the Brief Symptom Inventory. In addition, lifetime psychological disorders and drug and alcohol use during the last month were explored. No participant reported a lifetime episode of schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder. Results: Symptoms of PSW and PIU were significantly associated with PLEs total distress and PLEs total number of symptoms endorsed, after adjustment for age and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Further, PIU symptoms moderated the relationship between symptoms of PSW and PLEs total distress (b= 2.745, s.e.= 1.089, p= 0.012). However, PIU symptoms did not moderate the relationship between PSW and PLEs total symptoms (b= 0.029, s.e.= 0.017, p= 0.078). This study is limited because the participants were most likely university students and because of the crosssectional design. Conclusions: Findings from this study partially support the role of high symptoms of PIU as a risk factor in the relationship between symptoms of PSW and PLEs. Future longitudinal research is needed to confirm our findings examining the temporal relationship between PSW, PIU, and PLEs using both dimensional and categorical approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wise decisions are often guided by an accurate understanding of the expected values of different possible choices. In social contexts, wisdom comes from understanding how others are likely to respond to one's actions, enabling people to make choices that maximize both their own and others' outcomes. Our research suggests that miscalibrated social cognition may create a systematic barrier to wiser decisions in social life. From expressing appreciation to offering support to performing acts of kindness, this program of research indicates that decisions to engage with others are driven by how people expect a recipient to respond, but that people consistently underestimate how positively others will respond to their other-oriented actions. Because connecting with others consistently increases people's own wellbeing, miscalibrated social cognition may lead to undersociality: being overly reluctant to reach out and connect with others. Miscalibrated expectations about social engagement can create markets for products that help people overcome these barriers in order to consume their time, money, and effort more wisely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ratner et al. (2023) and Silver and Small (2023) raise deeply interesting questions about the broad consequences of increasing sociality, about people's ability to anticipate the outcomes of sociality, and about broader issues people may be considering when thinking of connecting with another person. We focus this response on the potential role of intentions and anticipated impressions in affecting undersociality, as well as the possibility of interactions that could moderate the gap between people's expectations of social engagement and their actual experiences. Many unanswered and important questions remain in need of critical empirical attention. We encourage future research that provides a better understanding of undersociality by focusing on intentions, impressions, and interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This randomized crossover trial examined social behavior after a typhoid vaccine. • Compared to placebo, the typhoid vaccine did not predict social avoidance. • Feelings of social connection were also unaffected by the vaccine. • Results suggest that mild inflammatory stimuli may not impact social processes. Inflammation can have social consequences, which may be relevant to inflammation's link with depression. The current study tests whether a typhoid vaccine increases feelings of social disconnection and avoidance behavior. In two full-day visits at least three weeks apart, 172 postmenopausal breast cancer survivors (Stage I-IIIA) each received a typhoid capsular polysaccharide vaccination and a saline placebo injection in a random sequence. Blood was drawn prior to the injection, as well as every 90 min thereafter for 8 h to assess the inflammatory response (interleukin-6, IL-6; interleukin-1 receptor antagonist, IL-1Ra). At both visits, women completed the Social Connection Scale at 0 and 8.5 h post-vaccination as well as implicit and explicit social avoidance tasks at 7 h post-vaccination. The typhoid vaccine triggered rises in both inflammatory markers (p s < 0.01), but it did not impact feelings of social connection (p =.32), or performance on the implicit (p =.34) or explicit tasks (p =.37). Inflammatory rises did not predict feelings of social connection (p s > 0.64) or performance on explicit (p s > 0.73) or implicit (p s > 0.88) social avoidance tasks. Milder inflammatory stimuli may not affect social processes. Higher levels of inflammation or, relatedly, more sickness symptoms may be necessary to recapitulate prior findings of social avoidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Social avoidance has been found to be related to negative social adjustment, yet evidence of the relationship between social avoidance and social adjustment is very limited in suburban preschoolers in China. Moreover, the underlying mechanisms that help to explain the associations between social avoidance and socio-emotional adjustment remain poorly considered. The goal of the present study was to examine the moderating effect of marital conflict in the link between social avoidance and indices of socio-emotional functioning among young children in mainland China. Participants were N= 256 children aged from 49 to 72 months (125 boys, 131 girls, Mage =59.06 months, SD =6.58) attending preschools/kindergartens in suburban areas of Shanghai, People's Republic of China. Multi-source assessments were employed, with mothers reporting marital conflict as well as rating their children's social withdrawal (i.e., social avoidance, shyness, unsociability), and teachers assessing indices of children's socioemotional functioning at school (i.e., anxious-fearful behavior, peer exclusion, and loneliness). Children were asked about their loneliness. Among the results, social avoidance was positively associated with anxious-fearful behavior, peer exclusion, and loneliness (marginal significance). Moreover, as hypothesized, marital conflict was found to exacerbate the relations between social avoidance and peer exclusion, and loneliness. Results are discussed in terms of the etiology and implications of social avoidance among young children in mainland China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological stress induces neuroinflammatory responses, which are associated with the pathogenesis of various psychiatric disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder and anxiety. Osthole—a natural coumarin isolated from the seeds of the Chinese herb Cnidium monnieri —exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects on the central nervous system. However, the therapeutic benefits of osthole against psychiatric disorders remain largely unknown. We previously demonstrated that mice subjected to repeated social defeat stress (RSDS) in the presence of aggressor mice exhibited symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, such as social avoidance and anxiety-like behaviors. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic effects of osthole and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Osthole exerted therapeutic effects on cognitive behaviors, mitigating anxiety-like behaviors and social avoidance in a mouse model of RSDS. The anti-inflammatory response induced by the oral administration of osthole was strengthened through the upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 expression. The expression of PPARα was inhibited in mice subjected to RSDS. Nonetheless, osthole treatment reversed the inhibition of PPARα expression. We identified a positive correlation between heme oxygenase-1 expression and PPARα expression in osthole-treated mice. In conclusion, osthole has potential as a Chinese herbal medicine for anxiety disorders. When designing novel drugs for psychiatric disorders, researchers should consider targeting the activation of PPARα. • Osthole alleviated repeated social defeat stress-induced maladaptive behaviors. • The protective effects of osthole were active through PPARα upregulation. • Osthole upregulated HO-1 expression likely through the activation of the PPARα. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental and public health professionals have paid increasing attention to the hikikomori phenomenon. With this letter, we aim to extend scientific knowledge on the characteristics of hikikomori and pre-hikikomori as reported by Italian participants using previously unpublished data. Presented findings suggest that stressful events and difficulties in interpersonal relationships and in adjusting to the increasing life-phase-related social demands may exert a prominent role in leading to hikikomori.

Background: Social avoidance plays an important role in influencing quality of life among patients with breast cancer. Social avoidance behaviors change with treatment periods. However, the trajectory patterns and the predictive factors have not been fully studied. Objective: This study examined the growth trajectory of social avoidance and its predictors in patients with breast cancer. Materials and methods: A total of 176 patients with breast cancer in a university hospital in Shaanxi Province, China, were followed up four times over 6 months following surgery, and data from the final 144 patients were analyzed. The growth mixed model (GMM) was used to identify the trajectory categories, and the predictive factors of the trajectory types were analyzed by logistic regression. Results: The best-fit growth mixture modeling revealed three class models: persistent high social avoidance group (Class 1), social avoidance increased first and then decreased group (Class 2), and no social avoidance group (Class 3), accounting for 13.89, 31.94, and 54.17% of patients, respectively. Single-factor analysis showed that family income per capita, residence, and temperament type were related to the social avoidance trajectory. Logistic regression analysis showed that only temperament type was an independent predictor of the social avoidance trajectory, and patients with melancholia were more likely to have persistent high social avoidance. Conclusion: Our study proved the heterogeneity of social avoidance behaviors and the influencing effect of temperament type on the development of social avoidance behaviors in Chinese patients with breast cancer. Health professionals should pay more attention to patients who are at higher risk of developing a persistent social avoidance pattern and provide target interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Most preclinical research on the effects of stress has been done on male subjects, even though women are more prone than men to experience stress-related problems. Chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) is a rodent model of psychosocial stress. However, this model has been challenged in female mouse studies since neither male nor female resident mice attack intruder females. A female-to-female CSDS model is needed to investigate the physiological and behavioral aspects. Methods: The intruders were either male or female C57BL/6J mice, whereas the residents were male or ovariectomized (OVX) female CD-1 mice. The CD-1 aggressor mice had direct physical contact with the C57BL/6J mice for 10 min before initiating sensory contact with them for 24 h. Jump escape and freezing were evaluated during the social defeat of days 1 and 12. Experimental C57BL/6J mice underwent a social interaction test after suffering social defeat for 12 days. Results: We found that the number of attack bites and attack latency had a significant negative correlation during the selection of aggressors. In the single-housed OVX mice, 34% of mice met the criterion of the selection of aggressors. However, single-housed OVX mice did not show sustained aggressive behavior (eg, attack bites) through the 12-day CSDS. As a result, we did not find susceptible mice during the social interaction test. In contrast, during the selection of aggressors, 42% of OVX mice housed with partners satisfied the criterion and displayed consistently aggressive behavior. CSDS produced susceptible (50%) and resilient (50%) phenotypes during the social interaction test. Notably, male and OVX female CD-1 mice housed with partners had similar amounts of attack bites and attack rates over the 12-day CSDS. Finally, we found that chronically socially defeated male and female mice displayed different coping behaviors (eg, active vs passive) with social defeat. Conclusions: Our study demonstrates that OVX CD-1 mice housed with mates exhibited territorial aggression toward female intruders, producing susceptibility and resilience to social avoidance. Additionally, socially defeated male and female mice displayed different behavioral susceptibility to social defeat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backgrounds: The neural circuit mechanisms underlying depression remain unclear. Recently optogenetics has gradually gained recognition as a novel technique to regulate the activity of neurons with light stimulation. Scientists are now transferring their focus to the function of brain regions and neural circuits in the pathogenic progress of depression. Deciphering the circuitry mechanism of depressive-like behaviors may help us better understand the symptomatology of depression. However, few studies have summarized current progress on optogenetic researches into the neural circuitmechanisms of depressive-like behaviors. Aims: This review aimed to introduce fundamental characteristics and methodologies of optogenetics, as well as how this technique achieves specific neuronal control with spatial and temporal accuracy. We mainly summarized recent progress in neural circuit discoveries in depressive-like behaviors using optogenetics and exhibited the potential of optogenetics as a tool to investigate the mechanism and possible optimization underlying antidepressant treatment such as ketamine and deep brain stimulation. Methods: A systematic review of the literature published in English mainly from 2010 to the present in databases was performed. The selected literature is then categorized and summarized according to their neural circuits and depressive-like behaviors. Conclusions: Many important discoveries have been made utilizing optogenetics. These findings support optogenetics as a powerful and potential tool for studying depression. And our comprehension to the etiology of depression and other psychiatric disorders will also be more thorough with this rapidly developing technique in the near future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mental and public health professionals have paid increasing attention to the hikikomori phenomenon. With this letter, we aim to extend scientific knowledge on the characteristics of hikikomori and prehikikomori as reported by Italian participants using previously unpublished data. ///Presented findings suggest that stressful events and difficulties in interpersonal relationships and in adjusting to the increasing life-phase-related social demands may exert a prominent role in leading to hikikomori. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to inspect the influence of the pandemic of COVID-19 on the mental health of both undergraduate and postgraduate students, who have been stranded from Chinese universities. The study used the online questionnaire, which was comprised of three scales. These are self-rating anxiety scale (SAS), the self-rating depression scale (SDS), and the scale for social avoidance and distress (SAD). A total of 159 undergraduates and 153 postgraduate students have participated in this study and it comprises both males and females. For exploring the impact of the Covid-19 on the mental health of the students, who have been stranded from Chinese universities, the study has made the use of the independent sample t-test and analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA). The findings show that Mental health of students stranded from universities negatively affected due to high level of anxiety, depression, and social anxiety due to pandemic. However, the level of anxiety, depression, and social anxiety has reduced to some extent as compare to earlier studies after the emergence of pandemic of COVID-19. The outbreak of COVID-19 has affected females more than males and the postgraduate students have a lower level of depression as compared to the undergraduate students because they have shown a higher level of mean and standard deviation values. Moreover, the depression level was high among the students of Natural and Applied sciences. The results also confirm that the level of anxiety, depression, and social anxiety was high in the young students as compared to the mature ones. Then, the level of anxiety and social anxiety was high in the students, who could not resume their classes and degrees. The findings of this study suggest that the mental health o undergraduate and postgraduate students should be carefully monitored after the pandemic of COVID-19 because it has left a deep mark on their mental health. Furthermore, it also calls for proper psychological counseling for addressing the issues of depression and anxiety in them.

Resilience, the ability to overcome stressful conditions, is found in most mammals and varies significantly among individuals. A lack of resilience can lead to the development of neuropsychiatric and sleep disorders, often within the same individual. Despite extensive research into the brain mechanisms causing maladaptive behavioral-responses to stress, it is not clear why some individuals exhibit resilience. To examine if sleep has a determinative role in maladaptive behavioral-response to social stress, we investigated individual variations in resilience using a social-defeat model for male mice. Our results reveal a direct, causal relationship between sleep amount and resilience—demonstrating that sleep increases after social-defeat stress only occur in resilient mice. Further, we found that within the prefrontal cortex, a regulator of maladaptive responses to stress, pre-existing differences in sleep regulation predict resilience. Overall, these results demonstrate that increased NREM sleep, mediated cortically, is an active response to social-defeat stress that plays a determinative role in promoting resilience. They also show that differences in resilience are strongly correlated with inter-individual variability in sleep regulation.

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a highly prevalent and comorbid anxiety disorder with rather unclear underlying mechanisms. Here, we aimed to characterize neurobiological changes occurring in mice expressing symptoms of social fear and to identify possible therapeutic targets for SAD. Social fear was induced via social fear conditioning (SFC), a validated animal model of SAD. We assessed the expression levels of the immediate early genes (IEGs) cFos, Fosl2 and Arc as markers of neuronal activity and the expression levels of several genes of the GABAergic, serotoninergic, oxytocinergic, vasopressinergic and neuropeptide Y (NPY)-ergic systems in brain regions involved in social behavior or fear-related behavior in SFC+ and SFC− mice 2 h after exposure to a conspecific. SFC+ mice showed a decreased number and density of cFos-positive cells and decreased expression levels of IEGs in the dorsal hippocampus. SFC+ mice also showed alterations in the expression of NPY and serotonin system-related genes in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, basolateral amygdala, septum and dorsal raphe nucleus, but not in the dorsal hippocampus. Our results describe neuronal alterations occurring during the expression of social fear and identify the NPY and serotonergic systems as possible targets in the treatment of SAD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior researchers have validated the use of a latency assessment to create a hierarchy of demand aversiveness. Demand latency assessments help to identify high‐aversive demands for use in functional analyses and/or treatment. The current study used the same approach to evaluate aversiveness of social interaction among four individuals who engaged in target behavior maintained by social avoidance. We obtained clear hierarchies in social interaction aversiveness across all participants. For one participant, we also used the social avoidance latency assessment to demonstrate an intervention approach using gradual fading of less‐ to more‐aversive forms of social interactions. These results indicate latency assessments may be applicable to generate hierarchies of aversive situations that may evoke target behavior maintained by social negative reinforcement other than escape from demands, leading to several clinical implications, and future research directions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relative to other motivations of social withdrawal (i.e., shyness, unsociability), social avoidance is understudied. Furthermore, the relation between social avoidance and externalizing problems seldom has been investigated despite reasons to expect an association. We examined the association between social avoidance and externalizing problems using a sample of early adolescents in the United States using parents' reports (N = 294; 54.1% boys; M age = 12.43 years). Supporting our hypotheses, structural equation models indicated that social avoidance positively predicted concurrent externalizing problems, controlling for shyness, unsociability, and internalizing problems (including depression and anxiety). Findings highlight that socially avoidant adolescents' behaviors may include avoiding others as well as acting out. Longitudinal work is needed to examine the potential bidirectional relations between social avoidance and externalizing problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic social defeat stress (CSDS), a widely used rodent model of stress, reliably leads to decreased social interaction in stress susceptible animals. Here, we investigate a role for fear learning in this response using male 129 Sv/Ev mice, a strain that is more vulnerable to CSDS than the commonly used C57BL/6 strain. We first demonstrate that defeated 129 Sv/Ev mice avoid a CD-1 mouse, but not a conspecific, indicating that motivation to socialize is intact in this strain. CD-1 avoidance is characterized by approach behavior that results in running in the opposite direction, activity that is consistent with a threat response. We next test whether CD-1 avoidance is subject to the same behavioral changes found in traditional models of Pavlovian fear conditioning. We find that associative learning occurs across 10 days CSDS, with defeated mice learning to associate the color of the CD-1 coat with threat. This leads to the gradual acquisition of avoidance behavior, a conditioned response that can be extinguished with 7 days of repeated social interaction testing (5 tests/day). Pairing a CD-1 with a tone leads to second-order conditioning, resulting in avoidance of an enclosure without a social target. Finally, we show that social interaction with a conspecific is a highly variable response in defeated mice that may reflect individual differences in generalization of fear to other social targets. Our data indicate that fear conditioning to a social target is a key component of CSDS, implicating the involvement of fear circuits in social avoidance. • In 129 Sv/Ev mice, chronic social defeat stress decreases social interaction with the aggressor only. • Fear conditioning to the bully occurs during chronic social defeat stress, resulting in learned avoidance behavior. • During chronic social defeat stress, defeated mice learn to associate the color of the aggressor with threat. • Chronic social defeat is a paradigm that can be used for studying fear learning involving a social cue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: A chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) model has been proposed as relevant to stress-induced behavioral change in humans. In this study, we examined the effect of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on CSDS-induced mood disorders and protein expression in an animal model. Methods: To evaluate the effect of KRG on social defeat stress, test mice were exposed in the resident aggressor's home cage compartment for 14 days beginning 1 h after KRG treatment (10, 20, and 40 mg/kg, per oral (p.o.)). After the exposure, behavioral tests to measure anxiety, social interaction, and depression-like behavior were performed. To investigate the underlying mechanism, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor expression levels in CSDS-induced mice were evaluated using Western blot analysis. Results: CSDS induced anxiety-like behaviors by decreasing central activity in the open-field test and open-arm approach in the elevated plus maze test and led to social avoidance behavior in the social interaction test. CSDS mice showed upregulated NR1, NR2A, and NR2B expression in the hippocampus. KRG 20 and 40 mg/kg ameliorated anxiety-like activities and KRG 20 mg/kg alleviated social avoidance by decreasing time in the corner zone. KRG treatment recovered CSDS-induced NR1, NR2A, and NR2B protein levels in the hippocampus. Conclusion: These results indicate that KRG has a therapeutic effect on CSDS-induced mood disorder by alleviating N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor overexpression in the hippocampus.

Psychological stress affects the neuroendocrine regulation, which modulates mental status and behaviors. Melatonin, a hormone synthesized primarily by the pineal gland, regulates many brain functions, including circadian rhythms, pain, sleep, and mood. Selective pharmacological melatonin agonist ramelteon has been clinically used to treat mood and sleep disorders. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition associated with severe trauma; it is generally triggered by traumatic events, which lead to severe anxiety and uncontrollable trauma recall. We recently reported that repeated social defeat stress (RSDS) may induce robust anxiety-like behaviors and social avoidance in mice. In the present study, we investigated whether melatonin receptor activation by melatonin and ramelteon regulates RSDS-induced behavioral changes. Melatonin treatment improved social avoidance and anxiety-like behaviors in RSDS mice. Moreover, treatment of the non-selective MT 1 /MT 2 receptor agonist, ramelteon, markedly ameliorated RSDS-induced social avoidance and anxiety-like behaviors. Moreover, activating melatonin receptors also balanced the expression of monoamine oxidases, glucocorticoid receptors, and endogenous antioxidants in the hippocampus. Taken together, our findings indicate that the activation of both melatonin and ramelteon regulates RSDS-induced anxiety-like behaviors and PTSD symptoms. The current study also showed that the regulatory effects of neuroendocrine mechanisms and cognitive behaviors on melatonin receptor activation in repeated social defeat stress. • Melatonin treatment improved social avoidance and anxiety-like behaviors in RSDS mice. • Ramelteon markedly ameliorated RSDS-induced social avoidance and anxiety-like behaviors. • Activation of melatonin receptors balanced the expression of monoamine oxidases, glucocorticoid receptors, and endogenous antioxidants in the hippocampus. • Ramelteon protects RSDS-elicited behavioral changes through the MT 1 receptor in the hippocampus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]