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Background: Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis) is an anaerobic flagellated parasite that usually infects the female genitourinary system. The traditional diagnostic tools of T. vaginalis, like wet-mount microscopy, have several limitations regarding technical requirements and accuracy. Consequently, to control the spread of trichomoniasis, fast and accurate detection of trichomoniasis represents a crucial factor in the treatment plan. Objectives: This study was performed to utilize polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays as a diagnostic tool for T. vaginalis. Materials and Methods: Vaginal swabs were obtained from 186 women who were admitted to the gynecology clinic in Al Sadiq Hospital in Babil Governorate in Iraq. Additionally, a questionnaire was gathered from the female participants regarding their age, residency, history of abortion, and symptoms. DNAs were extracted from the swabs, and conserved β-tubulin genes were amplified using specific primers. Results: Of the 186 participant females, 40 women showed positive PCR outcomes of T. vaginalis β-tubulin gene versus only seven positive cases detected by wet-mount microscopy. Residency and age-related prevalence of T. vaginalis infection were not statistically significant, despite the higher positive cases reported in urban areas. Additionally, higher percentages of history of abortion were seen in infected females versus noninfected females. Clinical diagnosis demonstrated that vaginal discharge and itching were the most prevalent symptoms reported by infected females. Conclusion: PCR assay used in the current study showed a beneficial and fast diagnostic ability of T. vaginalis because of its high sensitivity and specificity. Consequently, this would blunt the transmission of trichomoniasis among individuals, especially infected patients with asymptomatic properties.

Copyright of Medical Journal of Babylon is the property of Wolters Kluwer India Pvt Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Objective: Trichomonas vaginalis is a sexually transmitted protozoan parasite that usually causes infections in women. Metronidazole is used as the first choice in the treatment of this parasitic disease, but there is a need for new drugs since 1980’s with increasing numbers of reported resistance. In this study, it was aimed to determine the antitrichomonal activity of the major components of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon) and Thymusvulgaris (thyme) essential oils, cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol and thymol against metronidazole resistant and susceptible T. vaginalis strains, and to determine their interaction with metronidazole by checkerboard method. Methods: Cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol, thymol and metronidazole were obtained commercially. Two clinical isolates and one metronidazole resistant T. vaginalis reference strain were used in the study. MIC50 and MLC values of essential oil components and metronidazole were determined by broth microdilution method. The combinations of essential oil components with metronidazole were determined by the checkerboard method. Results: According to in vitro activity tests, cinnamaldehyde was determined to be most effective essential oil component. Clinical isolates were susceptible to metronidazole. In combination study, metronidazole showed synergy with cinnamaldehyde and carvacrol, and partial synergy with thymol. Conclusion: It was determined that cinnamaldehyde, carvacrol and thymol, which are known to have high antimicrobial activity, also have strong activity against T. vaginalis isolates and show a synergistic interaction with metronidazole. The use of metronidazole at lower doses in the synergistic interaction may contribute to the literature in terms of reducing drug side effects, creating a versatile antimicrobial target, and reducing the rate of resistance development.

Introduction and Purpose: Preterm delivery is a common complication during pregnancy periods and imposes a high cost on the healthcare system due to the care needs of premature babies. Sexually transmitted infections are one of the effective factors in the occurrence of preterm delivery and the diagnosis and treatment of these infections are effective in reducing complications and preventing preterm delivery. In this study, the role of Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis [TV]) infection in preterm delivery has been evaluated. Methods: In a prospective case–control study, women with preterm birth were assigned to the case group, and women with full-term delivery on the same day were also assigned randomly to the control group. After receiving the history and physical examination, a sample was taken from the cervix for TV culture. The data were included in the SPSS version 23 software. A significance level of less than 0.05 was considered. Findings: The overall prevalence of this infection was 10%. The prevalence of chlamydial infection was 2% among mothers with full-term delivery and 16.4% among mothers with premature birth, and there was a significant difference between the two groups (P = 0.021). The logistic regression analysis to determine the effect of Trichomonas infection on premature birth showed that there was the probability of the occurrence of premature delivery increases in mothers with trichomoniasis infection with lower age, higher body mass index, the presence of underlying disease, lower educational level, housewives, lower parity and gravity and having a history of fetus abortion more than 13 times with its occurrence probability occurs in mothers without Trichomonas infection (P = 0.046, Exp (β) =13.266). Conclusion: According to the present results, TV screening for pregnant women, especially in high-risk groups, is emphasized to reduce the incidence of preterm delivery and related complications, especially neonatal complications.

Introduction and Purpose: Preterm delivery is a common complication during pregnancy periods and imposes a high cost on the healthcare system due to the care needs of premature babies. Sexually transmitted infections are one of the effective factors in the occurrence of preterm delivery and the diagnosis and treatment of these infections are effective in reducing complications and preventing preterm delivery. In this study, the role of Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis [TV]) infection in preterm delivery has been evaluated. Methods: In a prospective case--control study, women with preterm birth were assigned to the case group, and women with full-term delivery on the same day were also assigned randomly to the control group. After receiving the history and physical examination, a sample was taken from the cervix for TV culture. The data were included in the SPSS version 23 software. A significance level of less than 0.05 was considered. Findings: The overall prevalence of this infection was 10%. The prevalence of chlamydial infection was 2% among mothers with full-term delivery and 16.4% among mothers with premature birth, and there was a significant difference between the two groups (P = 0.021). The logistic regression analysis to determine the effect of Trichomonas infection on premature birth showed that there was the probability of the occurrence of premature delivery increases in mothers with trichomoniasis infection with lower age, higher body mass index, the presence of underlying disease, lower educational level, housewives, lower parity and gravity and having a history of fetus abortion more than 13 times with its occurrence probability occurs in mothers without Trichomonas infection (P = 0.046, Exp (β) =13.266). Conclusion: According to the present results, TV screening for pregnant women, especially in high-risk groups, is emphasized to reduce the incidence of preterm delivery and related complications, especially neonatal complications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichonas vaginalis is a sexual, human flagellated protozoan-obligated parasite. In Iraq, there are few studies concerning trichomoniasis in men and no studies were conducted on men in Maysan province. So this study was conducted to estimate the infection rate (IR) of T. vaginalis in males and evaluated four methods that used in diagnosis of this parasite including Wet mount, Rapid antigen detection test (RADT), Conventional polymerase chain reaction (CO-PCR), and Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RTqPCR). Urine and semen samples were collected from 97 human males whose ages ranged from 18 to 50 years, and agreed to participate in the current study. With the wet mount (WM), no one had been detected to be infected (0/97) with T. vaginalis. In RADT, it finds that 13.63%(6/44) of urine samples are positive for trichomoniasis by this test while all the semen samples gave negative results. Conventional PCR detected T. vaginalis in 18.18% (8/44) of urine samples and in 27.27% (12/44) of the semen sample. In Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), T. vaginalis was detected in 29.54% (13/44) of urine samples and 31.82% (14/44) among the semen of the same males. The WM had the lower sensitivity of 0.0% and RT-qPCR had the highest sensitivity (100%) Finally, it can be concluded that the RT-qPCR is a golden standard tool for the diagnosis of T. vaginalis with high sensitivity and specificity and wet mount was poor and not recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Trichomonas vaginalis is a widespread and important sexually transmitted pathogen. Adherence to the surface of the host cell is the precondition for the parasitism and pathogenicity of this parasite. Trichomonas vaginalis adhesion protein 33 (TvAP33) plays a key role in the process of adhesion, but how this protein mediates the adhesion and pathogenicity of T. vaginalis to host cells is unclear. Methods The expression of TvAP33 in trophozoites was knocked down by small interfering RNA. VK2/E6E7 cells and mice infected with T. vaginalis were used to evaluate the pathogenicity of T. vaginalis. We constructed a complementary DNA library of VK2/E6E7 cells and screened the protein molecules interacting with TvAP33 by the yeast two-hybrid system. The interaction between TvAP33 and BNIP3 (Bcl-2 interacting protein 3) was analyzed by co-immunoprecipitation and colocalization. Results Following knockdown of TvAP33 expression, the number of T. vaginalis trophozoites adhering to VK2/E6E7 cells decreased significantly, and the inhibition of VK2/E6E7 cell proliferation and VK2/E6E7 cell apoptosis and death induced by T. vaginalis were reduced. Animal challenge experiments showed that the pathogenicity of trophozoites decreased following passive immunization with TvAP33 antiserum or blocking of the TvAP33 protein. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that TvAP33 could bind to VK2/E6E7 cells. Eighteen protein molecules interacting with TvAP33 were identified by the yeast two-hybrid system. The interaction between TvAP33 and BNIP3 was further confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation and colocalization. When the expression of both TvAP33 and BNIP3 in trophozoites was knocked down by small RNA interference, the number of T. vaginalis adhering to VK2/E6E7 cells and the inhibition of VK2/E6E7 cell proliferation were significantly lower compared to trophozoites with only knockdown of TvAP33 or only BNIP3. Therefore, the interaction of TvAP33 and BNIP3 in the pathogenesis of T. vaginalis infecting host cells is not unique and involves other molecules. Conclusions Our study showed that the interaction between TvAP33 and BNIP3 mediated the adhesion and pathogenicity of T. vaginalis to host cells, providing a basis for searching for drug targets for T. vaginalis as well as new ideas for the prevention and treatment of trichomoniasis. Graphical Abstract

Background: Trichomonas vaginalis is a widespread and important sexually transmitted pathogen. Adherence to the surface of the host cell is the precondition for the parasitism and pathogenicity of this parasite. Trichomonas vaginalis adhesion protein 33 (TvAP33) plays a key role in the process of adhesion, but how this protein mediates the adhesion and pathogenicity of T. vaginalis to host cells is unclear. Methods: The expression of TvAP33 in trophozoites was knocked down by small interfering RNA. VK2/E6E7 cells and mice infected with T. vaginalis were used to evaluate the pathogenicity of T. vaginalis. We constructed a complementary DNA library of VK2/E6E7 cells and screened the protein molecules interacting with TvAP33 by the yeast two-hybrid system. The interaction between TvAP33 and BNIP3 (Bcl-2 interacting protein 3) was analyzed by co-immunoprecipitation and colocalization. Results: Following knockdown of TvAP33 expression, the number of T. vaginalis trophozoites adhering to VK2/E6E7 cells decreased significantly, and the inhibition of VK2/E6E7 cell proliferation and VK2/E6E7 cell apoptosis and death induced by T. vaginalis were reduced. Animal challenge experiments showed that the pathogenicity of trophozoites decreased following passive immunization with TvAP33 antiserum or blocking of the TvAP33 protein. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that TvAP33 could bind to VK2/E6E7 cells. Eighteen protein molecules interacting with TvAP33 were identified by the yeast two-hybrid system. The interaction between TvAP33 and BNIP3 was further confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation and colocalization. When the expression of both TvAP33 and BNIP3 in trophozoites was knocked down by small RNA interference, the number of T. vaginalis adhering to VK2/E6E7 cells and the inhibition of VK2/E6E7 cell proliferation were significantly lower compared to trophozoites with only knockdown of TvAP33 or only BNIP3. Therefore, the interaction of TvAP33 and BNIP3 in the pathogenesis of T. vaginalis infecting host cells is not unique and involves other molecules. Conclusions: Our study showed that the interaction between TvAP33 and BNIP3 mediated the adhesion and pathogenicity of T. vaginalis to host cells, providing a basis for searching for drug targets for T. vaginalis as well as new ideas for the prevention and treatment of trichomoniasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Trichomonas vaginalis infection is one of the major health problems in the world, Trichomonas vaginalis infection is a common sexually transmitted protozoal infection, with an estimated 180 million prevalent cases worldwide. Objective: This study aims to estimate the prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among Sudanese patients according to sex and age in Bashaeir Hospital –Khartoum state. Methods: This study was a retrospective descriptive study of pre-collected urine samples, included male and female patients attending the outpatient, requested for urine general examination, samples were selected by systemic random sampling. One hundred-twenty five (125) samples have been taken; wet preparation has been done for all samples in Bashaeir Hospital lab. Result: 125 urine samples was examined. The number of females was 95 and males was 30. All samples were examined for T. vaginalis. Only 15 were positive. We could not collect data for all subjects; because it was not available. There was an available data about sex and age for 23 cases. Conclusion:Femalewas more affected by Trichomonas vaginalis than in males. The most affected age was ranging from (31-40) years.

Copyright of Baghdad Science Journal is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Objective:Trichomonas vaginalis is a protozoan parasite with unicellular, flagellate, and anaerobic metabolism. It is the second most prevalent pathogen among sexually transmitted agents after viruses. Microscopic examination, culture, and molecular methods are used in the laboratory diagnosis of T. vaginalis. However, in most routine microbiology laboratories, microscopy is preferred instead of culture and molecular methods for T. vaginalis diagnosis because microscopy is cheaper than other methods. This study aimed to produce T. vaginalis in media that can be detected frequently in microbiology laboratories.Methods:In this study, four media, namely, thioglucholate medium (THIO), brain heart infusion medium (BHI), tryptic soy broth medium (TSB), and Brucella broth medium (BRB) were modified and tested. Trypticase-yeast extract-maltose (TYM) medium was used as a reference medium. Each medium tested was enriched with three different serum additives. T. vaginalis trophozoite at a density of 104 parasites/mL was inoculated into each medium and incubated at 37 °C for 10 days. We determined the number of trophozoites using a hemocytometer, and the viability rates were determined using trypan blue.Results:Trichomonas vaginalis grew extremely well on THIO, BHI, and TSB media but not on BRB media. The time and number of parasites peaked were determined as 100×104 parasites/mL on THIO-ATS and THIO-FCS media on days five and four, respectively, 100×104 parasites/mL on BHI-ATS on day three, 98×104 parasite/mL on BHI-FCS media on day five, 100×104 parasites/mL on TSB-ATS on day four, and 82×104 parasite/mL on TSB-FCS media on day seven. Compared with the reference medium, TYM, T. vaginalis trophozoites survived significantly longer in THIO, BHI, and TSB media.Conclusion:The rich content of THIO, TSB, and BHI media, which are widely available in routine microbiology laboratories, may allow T. vaginalis growth.

The mucosa of the female reproductive tract must reconcile the presence of commensal microbiota and the transit of exogenous spermatozoa with the elimination of sexually transmitted pathogens. In the vagina, neutrophils are the principal cellular arm of innate immunity and constitute the first line of protection in response to infections or injury. Neutrophils are absent from the vaginal lumen during the ovulatory phase, probably to allow sperm to fertilize; however, the mechanisms that regulate neutrophil influx to the vagina in response to aggressions remain controversial. We have used mouse inseminations and infections of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Candida albicans, Trichomonas vaginalis, and HSV-2 models. We demonstrate that neutrophil infiltration of the vaginal mucosa is distinctively contingent on the ovarian cycle phase and independent of the sperm and pathogen challenge, probably to prevent sperm from being attacked by neutrophils. Neutrophils extravasation is a multi-step cascade of events, which includes their adhesion through selectins (E, P and L) and integrins of the endothelial cells. We have discovered that cervical endothelial cells expressed selectin-E (SELE, CD62E) to favor neutrophils recruitment and estradiol down-regulated SELE expression during ovulation, which impaired neutrophil transendothelial migration and orchestrated sperm tolerance. Progesterone up-regulated SELE to restore surveillance after ovulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mucosa of the female reproductive tract must reconcile the presence of commensal microbiota and the transit of exogenous spermatozoa with the elimination of sexually transmitted pathogens. In the vagina, neutrophils are the principal cellular arm of innate immunity and constitute the first line of protection in response to infections or injury. Neutrophils are absent from the vaginal lumen during the ovulatory phase, probably to allow sperm to fertilize; however, the mechanisms that regulate neutrophil influx to the vagina in response to aggressions remain controversial. We have used mouse inseminations and infections of Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Candida albicans, Trichomonas vaginalis, and HSV-2 models. We demonstrate that neutrophil infiltration of the vaginal mucosa is distinctively contingent on the ovarian cycle phase and independent of the sperm and pathogen challenge, probably to prevent sperm from being attacked by neutrophils. Neutrophils extravasation is a multi-step cascade of events, which includes their adhesion through selectins (E, P and L) and integrins of the endothelial cells. We have discovered that cervical endothelial cells expressed selectin-E (SELE, CD62E) to favor neutrophils recruitment and estradiol down-regulated SELE expression during ovulation, which impaired neutrophil transendothelial migration and orchestrated sperm tolerance. Progesterone up-regulated SELE to restore surveillance after ovulation.

Background: Trichomonas vaginalis infection is one of the major health problems in the world, Trichomonas vaginalis infection is a common sexually transmitted protozoal infection, with an estimated 180 million prevalent cases worldwide. Objective: This study aims to estimate the prevalence of Trichomonas vaginalis infection among Sudanese patients according to sex and age in Bashaeir Hospital - Khartoum state. Methods: This study was a retrospective descriptive study of precollected urine samples, included male and female patients attending the outpatient, requested for urine general examination, samples were selected by systemic random sampling. One hundred-twenty five (125) samples have been taken; wet preparation has been done for all samples in Bashaeir Hospital lab. Result: 125 urine samples was examined. The number of females was 95 and males was 30. All samples were examined for T. vaginalis. Only 15 were positive. We could not collect data for all subjects; because it was not available. There was an available data about sex and age for 23 cases. Conclusion: Female was more affected by Trichomonas vaginalis than in males. The most affected age was ranging from (31-40) years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Baghdad Science Journal is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Trichomonas vaginalis is the etiologic agent of trichomoniasis, a worldwide distributed sexually transmitted infection (STI) that affects the genitourinary tract. Even though this disease already has a treatment in the prescription of drugs of the 5-nitroimidazole class, described low treatments adhesion, adverse side effects and cases of resistant isolates demonstrate the need for new formulations. With this in mind, chalcones emerge as a potential alternative to be tested, being compounds widely distributed in nature, easy to chemically synthesize and presenting several biological activities already reported. In this experiment, we evaluated the antiparasitic activity of 10 chalcone at a concentration of 100 μM against ATCC 30236 T. vaginalis isolates, considering negative (live trophozoites), positive (Metronidazole 100 μM) and vehicle (DMSO 0.6%) controls. Compounds 3a, 3c, 3 g and 3i showed promising results, with MICs set at 70 μM, 80 μM, 90 μM and 90 μM, respectively (p < 0,05). Cytotoxicity assays were performed on VERO and HMVII cell lines and revealed low inhibition rates at concentrations bellow 20 μM. To elucidate a possible mechanism of action for these molecules, the DPPH, ABTS and FRAP assays were performed, in which none of the four compounds presented antioxidant activity. Assays to verify ROS and lipid peroxidation in the parasite membrane were performed. None of the tested compounds identified ROS accumulation after incubation with trophozoites. 3 g molecule promoted an increase in MDA production after incubation. Results presented in this paper demonstrate the promising trichomonicidal profile, although further tests are still needed to optimize their performance and better elucidate the mechanisms of action involved. [Display omitted] • Chalcone analogue compounds showed antiparasitic activity against T. vaginalis. • Cytotoxicity assays revealed low inhibition rates at concentrations below 20 μM. • No antioxidant activity was detected in the tested compounds. • The enzymes TvLDH and TvPNP showed better performance in molecular docking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In vitro antiprotozoal assays against E. histolytica, G. intestinalis, and T. vaginalis of synthesized derivatives of 2H-Indazol were accredited. Tert-butyl 4-(5-amino-6-methoxy-2H-indazol-2-yl) piperidine-1-carboxylate derivatives 6a-i were evaluated as an antiprotozoal activity. Metronidazole and Albendazole were used as for the drugs references and antagonistic to the three protozoa were found in compounds 6a, 6e and 6d. Nevertheless, all tested compounds exhibit potency as antiprotozoal agents, with metronidazole being superior to the drug of choice in almost all cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), exclusively adapted to the human genital tract, is one of the most common sexually transmitted pathogens. Adding to the complexity of the host-pathogen interactions, the parasite harbors TV-specific endosymbiont viruses (Trichomonasvirus, TVV). It was reported that small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) released by TV play a role in host immunity; however, the role of the viral endosymbiosis in this process remained unknown. We hypothesized that the virus may offer evolutionary benefit to its protozoan host at least in part by altering the immunomodulatory properties of sEVs spreading from the site of infection to non-infected immune effector cells. We infected human vaginal epithelial cells, the natural host of the parasite, with TV natively harboring TVV and an isogenic derivative of the parasite cured from the viral infection. sEVs were isolated from vaginal cell culture 24 h post TV infection and from medium where the isogenic TV strains were cultured in the absence of the human host. sEVs from TVV-negative but not TVV-positive parasites cultured alone caused NF-κB activation and increase of IL-8 and RANTES expression by uterine endocervical cells, which provide innate immune defense at the gate to the upper reproductive tract. Similarly, mononuclear leukocytes increased their IL-8, IL-6 and TNF-α output in response to sEVs from virus-negative, but not isogenic virus-positive parasites, the latter exosomes being immunosuppressive in comparison to TV medium control. The same phenomenon of suppressed immunity induced by the TVV-positive compared to TVV-negative phenotype was seen when stimulating the leukocytes with sEVs originating from infected vaginal cultures. In addition, the sEVs from the TVV-positive infection phenotype suppressed immune signaling of a toll-like receptor ligand derived from mycoplasma, another frequent TV symbiont. Quantitative comparative proteome analysis of the secreted sEVs from virus-positive versus virus-negative TV revealed differential expression of two functionally uncharacterized proteins and five proteins involved in Zn binding, protein binding, electron transfer, transferase and catalytic activities. These data support the concept that symbiosis with viruses may provide benefit to the protozoan parasite by exploiting sEVs as a vehicle for inter-cellular communications and modifying their protein cargo to suppress host immune activation.

Trichomoniasis is caused by Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis), which is a widespread and serious sexually transmitted pathogen in humans. The procedure of T. vaginalis adherence to the host cell is the precondition for T. vaginalis parasitism and pathogenicity. The AP33 adhesin of T. vaginalis (TvAP33) plays a key role in the process of adhesion. In this study, the specific primers for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were designed based on the sequence of TvAP33 (GenBank Accession No. U87098.1) to amplify the open reading frame (ORF), and the ORF was inserted into pET-32a (+) to produce recombinant TvAP33 (rTvAP33). The sequence analysis indicated that the TvAP33 gene encoded a protein of 309 amino acids with 32.53 kDa, and the protein was predicted to have a high antigen index. Western blotting assay showed rTvAP33 was successfully recognized by the sera of mice experimentally infected with T. vaginalis, while native TvAP33 in the somatic extract of T. vaginalis trophozoite was as well detected by sera from rats immunized with the rTvAP33. Immunofluorescence analysis using an antibody against rTvAP33 demonstrated that the protein was expressed and located on the surface of T. vaginalis trophozoites. The recombinant protein was emulsified in Freund’s adjuvant and used to immunize BALB/C mice three times at days 0, 14, and 28. The result of animal challenge experiments revealed the levels of IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a, and IL-4, IL-10, and IL17 among rTvAP33 vaccinated animals were integrally increased. Moreover, the rTvAP33 vaccinated animals were apparently prolonged survival time (26.45 ± 4.10) after challenge infection with this parasite. All these results indicated that TvAP33 could be used as vaccine candidate antigen to induce cell-mediated and humoral immunity.

Trichomonas vaginalis is a unicellular flagellated protozoan that resides in female and male genital tract and considered the most prevalent sexually transmitted infectious parasite. The infection rate is relatively equivalent between male and female but trichomoniasis is usually asymptomatic in men. Primary triggering of host inflammatory response to this parasite is not fully understood and most studies address the local reaction of the parasite in female genital tract. In this study, two pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-8 and IL-12, were investigated in the serum of infected women with Trichomonas vaginalis during acute and chronic stages of the disease. The results demonstrated that the level of IL-8 was significantly higher along the acute and chronic disease stages in female patients. However, the level of IL-12 was significantly increased in the acute group but exceptionally decreased in the chronic group of patients, in comparison with the control group. These results indicate that local infection of the vaginal Trichomoniasis may alter the levels of the studied inflammatory cytokines during infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomoniasis, caused by the protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis, is the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infection that affects over 170 million people worldwide. The only type of drug recommended for the therapeutic control of trichomoniasis is the 5-nitroimidazoles, although there have been reports of some undesirable side effects and clinical resistance. Hence, the need for the search for new tricomonicidal agents is necessary. In a previous work, we demonstrated that two 2-amino-4-aryl thiazole derivatives (ATZ-1 and ATZ-2) possess a portent antigiardial effect. In the current paper, we investigated the in vitro antitrichomonal activity of these thiazole compounds. Both ATZ-1 and ATZ-2 reduced the viability and growth of parasites in a dose-dependent manner, with an IC50 value of 0.15 μg/mL and 0.18 μg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, both thiazole compounds were able to decrease the proteolytic activity in T. vaginalis trophozoites compared with untreated parasites. Interestingly, a full proteolytic inhibition profile was observed in the 50-kDa region which was associated with the decreased expression of the gene that codes for the trichomonad protease TvMP50. The docking simulations predicted strong interactions of the thiazole compounds in the TvMP50 protease's active site, suggesting a possible role as protease inhibitors. Our results demonstrate the potential of 2-amino-4-aryl thiazole derivatives as trichomonicidal compounds and could be, mechanistically, involved in the inhibition of key trichomonad proteases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), exclusively adapted to the human genital tract, is one of the most common sexually transmitted pathogens. Adding to the complexity of the host-pathogen interactions, the parasite harbors TV-specific endosymbiont viruses (Trichomonasvirus , TVV). It was reported that small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) released by TV play a role in host immunity; however, the role of the viral endosymbiosis in this process remained unknown. We hypothesized that the virus may offer evolutionary benefit to its protozoan host at least in part by altering the immunomodulatory properties of sEVs spreading from the site of infection to non-infected immune effector cells. We infected human vaginal epithelial cells, the natural host of the parasite, with TV natively harboring TVV and an isogenic derivative of the parasite cured from the viral infection. sEVs were isolated from vaginal cell culture 24 h post TV infection and from medium where the isogenic TV strains were cultured in the absence of the human host. sEVs from TVV-negative but not TVV-positive parasites cultured alone caused NF-κB activation and increase of IL-8 and RANTES expression by uterine endocervical cells, which provide innate immune defense at the gate to the upper reproductive tract. Similarly, mononuclear leukocytes increased their IL-8, IL-6 and TNF-α output in response to sEVs from virus-negative, but not isogenic virus-positive parasites, the latter exosomes being immunosuppressive in comparison to TV medium control. The same phenomenon of suppressed immunity induced by the TVV-positive compared to TVV-negative phenotype was seen when stimulating the leukocytes with sEVs originating from infected vaginal cultures. In addition, the sEVs from the TVV-positive infection phenotype suppressed immune signaling of a toll-like receptor ligand derived from mycoplasma, another frequent TV symbiont. Quantitative comparative proteome analysis of the secreted sEVs from virus-positive versus virus-negative TV revealed differential expression of two functionally uncharacterized proteins and five proteins involved in Zn binding, protein binding, electron transfer, transferase and catalytic activities. These data support the concept that symbiosis with viruses may provide benefit to the protozoan parasite by exploiting sEVs as a vehicle for inter-cellular communications and modifying their protein cargo to suppress host immune activation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three concentration were target the viable trophozoites of parasite in this study return to the alkaloid extract of the green algae or chlorophyte Clorella volgaris in vitro, the results for the study were explain a high activity for the extract against the parasite where it is destroyed totally by 300 µg\ml in about four hours post treatment, further the decrease or the damage of parasite were started from the first 30 minutes from the treatment and in three concentrations that uses that included 150,200,300 µg\ml. the activity of alkaloid extract against T. vaginalis were reported a total damage for parasite after the third day in the case of 150 µg\ml, one day at 200 µg\ml, and 4 hours at 300 µg\ml post treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomonas vaginalis is a flagellated protozoan parasite that causes a disease called trichomoniasis in humans. It affects the urogenital tract and is one of the most important causes of non-viral genitourinary sexually transmitted infection (STI). The host's immune response plays a very important role in the onset of pathological symptoms and their differences between infected people. During the period from July to December 2019, 30 samples were collected, 20 of infected women with T. vaginalis and 10 samples as a control group from reviews of external women's clinics in Kirkuk city, whose ages ranged between 18-56 years so this study was designed to know the effect of infection with T. vaginalis parasite on some immunological parameters such as the role of humoral immune response based on the production of immunoglobulins IgM, IgG, IgA against the parasite and there estimation in serum by using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique as well as estimating the C-Reactive protein concentration as an indication of systemic inflammation and of serum iron level . The results of the current study showed a "significant" increase in the level of immunoglobulins IgM, IgG in serum of women infected with T. vaginalis compared to the control group, as the level of IgM (8. 2 ± 2.9 ng/dl), (6.3 ± 0.5 ng/dl) Consequently, at the level (p <0.05), the level of IgG was (8.16 ± 2.20 ng/dl), (6.53 ± 1.69 ng/dl) for the infected women and the control group, respectively. As for the level of IgA, the results showed non-significant increase in the affected women compared with control group (8.22 ± 3.1 ng/dl), (7.82 ± 2.8 ng/dl), respectively. The results of estimating the CRP concentration showed a significant increase in the infected women compared to the control group (5.76± 1.56 mg/dl), (4.61± 0.66 mg/dl), respectively. While the results of measuring the level of iron showed a significant decrease among infected women and the control group (38.79 ±8.23 mg/dl), (93.83± 34.76 mg/dl), respectively. We conclude from the above that infection with T.vaginals stimulates the humoral immune response and affects on immunoglobulins levels, CRP concentration and Iron serum level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The present study aimed to determine the chemical compositions and bioactivities of the essential oil of Atalantia sessiflora Guillaumin (A. sessiflora), including antibacterial, antimycotic, antitrichomonas, anti-inflammatory and antiviral effects. Methodology: The essential oil from leaves of A. sessiflora was extracted by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger apparatus. Chemical compositions of oil were identified by GC/MS. Antimicrobial and antitrichomonas activity were determined by the microdilution method; antiinflammatory and antiviral were determined by the MTT method. Results: The average yield of oil was 0.46 ± 0.01% (v/w, dry leaves). A number of 45 constituents were identified by GC/MS. The essential oil comprised four main components. The oil showed antimicrobial activities against Gram-positive strains as Staphylococcus; Gram-negative bacteria such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli; and finally four Candida species. Enterococcus faecalis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were least susceptible to the oil of A. sessiflora, as seen in their MIC and MLC values over 16% (v/v). Activity against Trichomonas vaginalis was also undertaken, showing IC50, IC90 and MLC values of 0.016, 0.03 and 0.06% (v/v) respectively, after 48 hours of incubation. The oil of A. sessiflora displayed activity against the nitric oxide generation with the IC50 of 95.94 ± 6.18 µg/mL. The oil was completely ineffective against tested viruses, ssRNA+, ssRNA-, dsRNA, and dsDNA viruses. Conclusions: This is the first yet comprehensive scientific report about the chemical compositions and pharmacological properties of the essential oil of A. sessiflora. Further studies should be done to evaluate the safety and toxicity of A. sessiflora oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomoniasis is caused by Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis), which is a widespread and serious sexually transmitted pathogen in humans. The procedure of T. vaginalis adherence to the host cell is the precondition for T. vaginalis parasitism and pathogenicity. The AP33 adhesin of T. vaginalis (TvAP33) plays a key role in the process of adhesion. In this study, the specific primers for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were designed based on the sequence of TvAP33 (GenBank Accession No. U87098.1) to amplify the open reading frame (ORF), and the ORF was inserted into pET-32a (+) to produce recombinant TvAP33 (rTvAP33). The sequence analysis indicated that the TvAP33 gene encoded a protein of 309 amino acids with 32.53 kDa, and the protein was predicted to have a high antigen index. Western blotting assay showed rTvAP33 was successfully recognized by the sera of mice experimentally infected with T. vaginalis , while native TvAP33 in the somatic extract of T. vaginalis trophozoite was as well detected by sera from rats immunized with the rTvAP33. Immunofluorescence analysis using an antibody against rTvAP33 demonstrated that the protein was expressed and located on the surface of T. vaginalis trophozoites. The recombinant protein was emulsified in Freund's adjuvant and used to immunize BALB/C mice three times at days 0, 14, and 28. The result of animal challenge experiments revealed the levels of IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a, and IL-4, IL-10, and IL17 among rTvAP33 vaccinated animals were integrally increased. Moreover, the rTvAP33 vaccinated animals were apparently prolonged survival time (26.45 ± 4.10) after challenge infection with this parasite. All these results indicated that TvAP33 could be used as vaccine candidate antigen to induce cell-mediated and humoral immunity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: More than 30 bacterial, viral, and parasitic pathogens have the potential for transfusion (sexually transmitted), an infectious group called sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Atofobium vagina, Gardnerella vaginalis are one of the most common causes of the disease. T. vaginalis is also the most common protozoa among vaginosis causing agents. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of these factors in conjunction with the multiplex PCR method. Methods: In this study, among 320 women who referred to Shahid Akbarabadi Hospital in Tehran, 70 samples of people with symptoms of vaginosis who had not taken antibiotics at least one week before the visit were selected. The results of the Amsel criteria and Nugent score tests indicated only 27 cases as bacterial vaginosis. After DNA extraction from the specimens, a multiplex PCR was performed on the samples. Results: The results of the multiplex PCR showed that in 27 cases, 14 cases of bacterial vaginosis only in terms of A. vaginalis, 21 cases were only G. vaginalis and 10 were positive for both bacteria and in the case of T. vaginalis only 1 positive sample was observed among all samples of vaginosis, which was also positive in the A. vaginalis. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that multiplex PCR could be of great help in the diagnosis of bacterial vaginitis diseases.

Background: Infertility is a worldwide medical issue in which infection is recognized to play a major role. Pathogens trigger various mechanisms that impact fertility, either directly by affecting the physiological indices of semen or indirectly by disrupting the process of spermatogenesis. In the current work, the effect of in-vitro cultivation of Escherichia coli ( E. coli ), Candida non-albicans ( C. non-albicans ), and Trichomonas vaginalis ( T. vaginalis ) (as the most frequently reported sexually transmitted infections) was assessed on the physiological functions of the spermatozoa and the chemical characteristics of the seminal fluid., Method: The semen samples were exposed to cultures of E. coli , C. non-albicans , and T. vaginalis . The study analyzed the changes in motility, agglutination, viability, DNA fragmentation index (DFI%), seminal pH, and biochemical parameters at 1/2, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3.5 and 4 hours., Results: Incubation of the semen samples with E. coli resulted in a progressive increase in agglutination, pH, and nitrite. The seminal glucose and the sperm motility, on the other hand, were reduced. The sperm vitality and seminal protein remained unaffected. C. non-albicans induced three forms of agglutination (head-to-head, tail-to-tail, and head-to-tail), lowered pH values and decreased the sperm motility, but did not alter the seminal protein, glucose, nitrite, nor the spermatozoa viability at the different tested time intervals. T. vaginalis resulted in increased seminal protein, and reduced glucose, pH, and motility. It also induced minimal agglutination and caused unchanged nitrite and sperm viability. The DFI% was increased in all pathogens with the C. non-albicans showing the highest DNA fragmentation index., Conclusion: Urogenital infection with E. coli , C. non-albicans , or T. vaginalis is assumed to affect the quality of semen through DNA fragmentation, agglutination and altered seminal chemical microenvironment.

The treatment for trichomoniasis, based on 5′-nitroimidazol agents, has been presenting failures related to allergic reactions, side effects, and the emergence of resistant isolates. There are no alternative drugs approved for the treatment of these cases; thus, the search for new active molecules is necessary. In this scenario, chalcones have been extensively studied for their promising biological activities. Here, we presented the synthesis of three hydroxychalcones (3a, b, and c), in vitro and in silico analyses against Trichomonas vaginalis. The in vitro biological evaluation showed that hydroxychalcone 3c presented anti-T. vaginalis activity, with complete death in 12 h of incubation at minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 100 μM. 3c showed a dose-dependent cytotoxicity against mammalian VERO cell line, but the association of 3c at 12.5 μM and metronidazole (MTZ) at 40 μM showed 95.31% activity against T. vaginalis trophozoites after 24 h of exposure and did not affect the VERO cell growth, appearing to be a good alternative. In silico analysis by molecular docking showed that 3c could inhibit the activity of TvMGL (methionine gamma-lyase), TvLDH (lactate dehydrogenase), and TvPNP (purine nucleoside phosphorylase) affecting the T. vaginalis survival and also suggesting a different mechanism of action from MTZ. Therefore, these results propose that hydroxychalcones are promising anti-T. vaginalis agents and must be considered for further investigations regarding trichomoniasis treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis) is a common sexually transmitted infection, affecting the urogenital tract. Trichomoniasis is customarily treated with metronidazole (MTZ). MTZ is known to cause undesirable side effects and there is several reports on MTZ resistant T. vaginalis. Thus, the present study aimed to in-vitro evaluate the activity of DNA minor groove binder drug ''Netropsin dihydrochloride'' against metronidazole-sensitive T. vaginalis isolates (G and U isolates) and resistant T. vaginalis isolate (ATCC50138) (R isolate). Netropsin was tested at concentrations ranging from 3.5 to 200 μg/ml. It showed effectiveness against all isolates with MLC of 12.5 μg/ml for G and U isolates and of 25 μg/ml for R isolate. Cytotoxicity assay of isolates exposed to the respective MLC of netropsin for 42 h showed a highly significant reduction in the death percentage of MCDK cell line as compared to the effect elicited by drug free controls. The hemolytic activity was evaluated by hemolytic assay and by monitoring the interaction of T. vaginalis isolates with human erythrocytes by inverted microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The hemolytic assay showed (0%) hemolysis of RBCs incubated with T. vaginalis isolates treated with the corresponding MLC of netropsin for 24 h. Scanning electron microscopy revealed cytoskeletal deformities of netropsin treated isolates. Taken together, these observations suggest that netropsin is a promising therapy for T. vaginalis infection affecting its viability, virulence, cytopathogenic and hemolytic activity with a mechanism of action that might overcome T. vaginalis resistance to metronidazole. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: More than 30 bacterial, viral, and parasitic pathogens have the potential for transfusion (sexually transmitted), an infectious group called sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Atofobium vagina, Gardnerella vaginalis are one of the most common causes of the disease. T. vaginalis is also the most common protozoa among vaginosis causing agents. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of these factors in conjunction with the multiplex PCR method. Methods: In this study, among 320 women who referred to Shahid Akbarabadi Hospital in Tehran, 70 samples of people with symptoms of vaginosis who had not taken antibiotics at least one week before the visit were selected. The results of the Amsel criteria and Nugent score tests indicated only 27 cases as bacterial vaginosis. After DNA extraction from the specimens, a multiplex PCR was performed on the samples. Results: The results of the multiplex PCR showed that in 27 cases, 14 cases of bacterial vaginosis only in terms of A. vaginalis, 21 cases were only G. vaginalis and 10 were positive for both bacteria and in the case of T. vaginalis only 1 positive sample was observed among all samples of vaginosis, which was also positive in the A. vaginalis. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that multiplex PCR could be of great help in the diagnosis of bacterial vaginitis diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to determine the prevalence and factors that promote the transmission of Trichomonas vaginalis among pregnant women in Sokoto metropolis using High Vaginal Swab (HVS) and urine samples. Samples were collected from 100 pregnant women within the age of 18-50 years in Mabera Clinic and Maryam Abacha Women and Children Hospital (MAWCHS) using sterile speculum for HVS and sample bottles for urine. Participation was voluntary. Of the 100 women, 17(17%) were infected overall, while 7(7.0%) had infection only in their vaginal swab, 3 (3.0%) only in their urine and 7 (7.0%) in both urine and vaginal swab. Vaginal swabs significantly recorded more infections than urine samples (p<0.05). Women aged 32-38 had highest prevalence, 6(30.0%) and those in 1st trimester were more infected than others. Women who use pit latrine were more infected, 15(22.1%) than those who use water system and open space, and those from polygamous marriages of 3 wives to one husband recorded highest infection rates 5(33.3%). The difference in infection rates based on age, trimester, lavatory type and form of marriage were however not statistically significant (p>0.05). Women age, lack of proper toilet facilities, and form of marriage with multiple sexual partners could be factors' influencing the disease transmission in the study area and adequate health education is recommended, especially amongst young women and those from polygamous forms of marriage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The widespread bacteria, parasites and viruses are considered as the potential sources of infections which can endanger the public health. Accordingly, sensitive, rapid and cost-effective analysis methods are required for identification of the pathogens to achieve an improved quality of life. Trichomonas vaginalis is among the commonly colonizing parasite which threatens human health by causing Trichomoniasis infection. In the present study, we demonstrate the fabrication and application of a novel electrochemical genosensor based on an electrodeposited gold nanostructure as a transducer combined with toluidine blue (TB) as a redox marker. A specific DNA sequence was immobilized on the transducer and the hybridization process was detected using differential pulse voltammetry. The genosensor showed excellent performance towards detection of TV with high sensitivity and good selectivity. A linear correlation was obtained between the electrochemical response of the genosensor with a complementary-sequence DNA concentration in the range of 1.0 × 10 −19 to 1.0 × 10 −12 mol L −1 with a limit of detection as low as 3.1 × 10 −20 mol L −1 . Moreover, the prepared genosensor could discriminate between the complementary-sequence, base-mismatched-sequences and a non-complementary-sequence oligonucleotides via TB binding. Comparison of the actual human samples analyzed by both the prepared genosensor and the standard gel electrophoresis confirmed the practical applicability of the genosensor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• TvAP65 played a key role in T. vaginalis adhering to host cells, inhibiting host cells proliferation and inducing host cells apoptosis and death. • The pathogenicity of trophozoites was decreased by passive immunization with anti-rTvAP65 PcAb or blocking TvAP65 protein. • TvAP65 could bind to VK2/E6E7 cells, and 13 protein molecules interacting with TvAP65 were screened from VK2/E6E7 cells. • The interaction between TvAP65 and BNIP3 played a role in the pathogenesis of T. vaginalis infecting host cells. Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis) is a widespread and important sexually transmitted pathogen. Adherence to the surface of the host cell is the precondition forthis parasite's parasitism and pathogenicity. Adhesion protein 65 (TvAP65) plays a key role in the process of adhesion. However, how TvAP65 mediates the adhesion and pathogenicity of T. vaginalis to host cellsis unclear. In this study, we knocked down the expression of TvAP65 in trophozoites by small RNA interference. The number of T. vaginalis trophozoites adhering to VK2/E6E7 cells was decreased significantly, and the inhibition of VK2/E6E7 cells proliferation and VK2/E6E7 cells apoptosis and death induced by T. vaginalis were reduced, after the expression of TvAP65 was knocked down. Animal challenge experiments showed that the pathogenicity of trophozoites was decreased by passive immunization with anti-rTvAP65 PcAbs or blocking the TvAP65 protein. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that TvAP65 could bind to VK2/E6E7 cells. In order to screen the molecules interacting with TvAP65 on the host cells, we successfully constructed the cDNA library of VK2/E6E7 cells, and thirteen protein molecules interacting with TvAP65 were screened by yeast two-hybrid system. The interaction between TvAP65 and BNIP3 was further confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation and colocalization. When both TvAP65 and BNIP3 were knocked down by small RNA interference, the number of T. vaginalis adhering to VK2/E6E7 cells and the inhibition of VK2/E6E7 cells proliferation were significantly lower than those of the group with knockdown of TvAP65 or BNIP3 alone. Therefore, the interaction of TvAP65 and BNIP3 in the pathogenesis of T. vaginalis infecting host cells is not unique and involves other molecules. Our study elucidated that the interaction between TvAP65 and BNIP3 mediated the adhesion and pathogenicity of T. vaginalis to host cells, provided a basis for searching for the drug targets of anti- T. vaginalis , and afforded new ideas for the prevention and treatment of trichomoniasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Trichomoniasis is a non-viral sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis (TV). The aim of our study was to identify the most frequent TV isolates using urethral, vaginal and cervical swabs with standard diagnostics from males and females. Material and methods: The analysis of collected swabs (urethral, vaginal and cervical) was performed at the Department of Microbiology, Institute for Public Health of Canton Sarajevo, from June 2016 to March 2017. Microscopic evaluation of wet preparations and cultivation were demonstrated as the most common method for TV diagnostics. The urethral swabs were collected all together with vaginal and cervical in absolute value of 4784 from males and females. Results: T. vaginalis was identified in the frequency of 269 isolates. The highest frequency of positive isolates was in June (N=69) and July (N=45) in 2016 while the lowest rate was in January 2017 (N=8). There were 53 cases of total positive swabs among males and females from January to March 2017 in Canton Sarajevo and median age was 29 year interquartile range (25.0-37.5). Out of them 30 were males and 23 females with no statistical significance. Conclusions: T. vaginalis was identified from urethral, vaginal and cervical swabs with standard diagnostics in high frequency from males. Our data suggest that wet mount examination of fresh samples contribute to increase the sensitivity in the diagnosis of trichomoniasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomoniasis is the most common curable sexually transmitted disease worldwide. Resistance to metronidazole in treating trichomoniasis is a problematic health issue. We aimed to determine the minimum lethal concentration (MLC) of metronidazole for Trichomonas vaginalis isolates detected in Mansoura, Egypt and studied the genotypic profile of these isolates. Vaginal swab specimens were obtained from 320 symptomatic and 100 asymptomatic females, for whom clinical examination, vaginal discharge wet mount, Giemsa stain, and culture in modified Diamond's media were performed. Metronidazole susceptibility testing by an aerobic tube assay was performed. Both sensitive and resistant isolates were examined by PCR amplification followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Trichomonas vaginalis was identified in 49/420 (11.7%) using either culture or PCR, while wet mount and Giemsa stain detected the parasite in 8.1 and 7.6% of participants, respectively. After 48 h incubation, most isolates were sensitive to metronidazole with a minimal lethal concentration (MLC) of 1 μg/ml. Mild resistance was observed in two isolates with MLCs of 64 μg\ml and mild to moderate resistance was observed in an additional two isolates with MLCs of 128 μg/ml. The four isolates that demonstrated low to moderate metronidazole resistance displayed a unique genotype band pattern by RFLP compared to the other 45 samples that were metronidazole sensitive. Our results highlight the presence of in vitro metronidazole tolerance in a few T. vaginalis isolates in Mansoura, Egypt that may lead to the development of drug resistance as well as the possibility of an identifying RFLP pattern in the isolates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Sexually transmitted infection (STI) is a major global cause of acute illness, infertility, long-term disability and death, with serious medical and psychological consequences to millions of men, women and infants. Moreover, in Ethiopia, epidemiological studies on STI among STI clinic clients are limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of sexually transmitted infection (STI). METHODS: A cross sectional study was conducted between April and August 2014 among STI clinic clients in Gondar Town hospitals and health centers. One hundred twenty study participants who fulfill the criteria were included. Different laboratory methods and techniques were applied to identify the possible microorganisms. Data were entered and analyzed using SPSS version 20. Logistic regression was used to determine risk factors for STI and P values < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: The overall laboratory test confirmed that STIs prevalence was 74.1% with 32.5% being Candida spp., 30% T. palladium, 20.8% N. gonorrhoeae and 14.2% T. vaginalis. Two or more organisms were isolated in 20% of the study subjects. Risk factors for STI had knowledge about STI and alcohol consumption. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of N. gonorrhoeae, T. pallidum, T. vaginalis, and Candida spp. in the study area was high. It needs health education programs, promotes condom utilization and more comprehensive community based STI studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomonas infection is a scientific and clinical problem in dermatology, urology, obstetrics and gynecology. This infection in men and women is often causes to urethritis, cystitis, prostatitis, post-abortion infection, premature labor and other diseases. This literature review has shown that in spite of a lot of numbers of scientific data concerning the impact of trichomoniasis to urogenital bioceonosis of both men and women, there is no enough data about influence of trichomoniasis to urinary microecology in sexual partners. Meanwhile, this question is in the field of scientific and applied interest and need to be studied.

The currently available nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) for trichomoniasis are accurate, quick and confirmative with superior sensitivity than traditional culture-based microbiology assays. However, these assays are associated with problems of carry over contamination, false positive results, requirement of technical expertise for performance and detection of end product. Hence, a diagnostic assay with easy visualization of the amplified product will be profitable. An in-house, rapid, sensitive, specific molecular-beacon-based PCR assay, using primers against pfoB gene of Trichomonas vaginalis, was developed and evaluated using dry ectocervical swabs (n=392) from symptomatic females with vaginal discharge. Total DNA was isolated and used as template for the PCR assays. The performance and reproducibility of PCR assay was evaluated by composite reference standard (CRS). For easy visualization of the amplified product, molecular-beacon was designed and amplicons were visualized directly using fluorescent handheld dark reader or by Micro-Plate Reader. Molecular-beacons are single-stranded hairpin shaped nucleic acid probes composed of a stem, with fluorophore/quencher pair and a loop region complementary to the desired DNA. The beacon-based PCR assay designed in the present study is highly specific as confirmed by competition experiments and extremely sensitive with detection limit of 20 fg of genomic DNA (3–4 pathogens). The minimum infrastructure requirement and ease to perform the assay makes this method highly useful for resource poor countries for better disease management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomonas vaginalis and Tritrichomonas foetus are parasitic protists of the human and bovine urogenital tracts, respectively. Several studies have described the cytotoxic effects of trichomonads on urogenital tract epithelial cells. However, little is known about the host cell response against trichomonads. The aim of this study was to determine whether T. foetus and T. vaginalis stimulated the release of the cytokine interleukin (IL)-10 from cultured bovine epithelial cells. To characterise the inflammatory response induced by these parasites, primary cultures of bovine oviduct epithelial cells were exposed to either T. vaginalis or T. foetus. Within 12 h after parasite challenge, supernatants were collected and cytokine production was analysed. Large amounts of IL-10 were detected in the supernatants of cultures that had been stimulated with T. foetus. Interestingly, T. vaginalis induced only a small increase in the release of IL-10 upon exposure to the same bovine cells. Thus, the inflammatory response of the host cell is species-specific. Only T. foetus and not T. vaginalis induced the release of IL-10 by bovine oviduct epithelial cells.

• T. vaginalis excretory secretory proteins (TvESPs) reduce the survival and motility of sperms, destroy acrosomes, and induce apoptosis. • TvESPs depress the fertilization ability of sperms and obstruct the development of fertilized eggs. • TvESPs induce sperm apoptosis via destroying the balance between pro- and anti-apoptosis molecules. • T. vaginalis declines semen quality and affects male fertility by the TvESPs. Trichomonas vaginalis (T. vaginalis) infection is the most common non-viral sexually transmitted disease (STD) in the world. It can cause male reproductive dysfunction and infertility. However, the pathogenic mechanism is not clear. In this study, the excretory secretory proteins of T. vaginalis (TvESPs) were collected, concentrated, and sterilized. After sperm co-cultured with TvESPs, the survival rate and motility of sperms were analyzed by seminal routine examination, and the results showed that the TvESPs could significantly reduce the survival rate and motility of sperms. Fluorescence staining displayed that TvESPs could destroy the integrity of sperm acrosomes. Flow cytometry indicated that TvESPs induced sperm apoptosis. By mouse in vitro fertilization, we confirmed that TvESPs could significantly reduce the fertilization ability of sperms and negatively affect the development of the fertilized ovum. Via semi-quantitative analysis, we found that the apoptosis-related p27, SMAC, p53, BAX, BCL-2, XIAP, and BCL-W molecules were down-regulated in mouse sperm cells after interaction between the sperms and TvESPs, which played an important role in regulating sperm apoptosis. In conclusion, our study showed that T. vaginalis degraded semen quality and negatively affected male fertility by TvESPs. TvESPs may damage sperms by breaking the balance between sperm pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic molecules. This study proves that T. vaginalis infection is a risk factor for infertility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prevalence of urinary parasitic infections with emphasis on T. vaginalis and S. haematobium among patients attending four selected hospitals in Gboko viz: Mkar hospital, Myom hospital, General hospital and Division hospital all in Gboko Local Government area of Benue State Nigeria, was investigated. A total number of 400 urine samples (100 from each hospital) were aseptically collected into sterile specimen bottles. Samples were immediately transferred to Lens Gabriel School of Medical Laboratory Sciences Mkar, Benue State for microscopic analyses and examination. Data were analysed and presented using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on age and marital status, results showed that prevalence rate of trichomoniasis and schistosomiasis were highest among (C) that is age group 21years and above. In all the hospitals, prevalence rate of T. vaginalis was highest with 12% followed by S. haematobium with an infection rate of 11% among the married patients as compared to the single patients. In the case of co infection, prevalence rate was also highest in the married patients (2.5%) as opposed to the single patients (1.5%). There was no significant level of associations between urinary tract infections, age and marital status of patients with 95% confidence limit. This work has therefore provided baseline information on the prevalence of these two infections in the four hospitals in Gboko Local Government Area. Thus, there is need for urgent effective control measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichomoniasis, as a major public health concern, is the world's most common sexually transmissible disease. This infection is caused by a protozoan parasite called Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) that can lead to reproductive and genital area problems. Accordingly, it is of great significance to expand new methods for increasing the sensitivity of TV detection. In this study, a novel label-free electrochemical DNA biosensor for TV quantitation was constructed based on an electropolymerized poly(ortho-aminophenol) thin film simultaneously acting as a transducer as well as a redox indicator. The redox-active polymeric film was utilized to covalent immobilization of a specific thiolated DNA probe. The hybridization process was then monitored by differential pulse voltammetry. The proposed biosensor detected a synthetic TV target sequence with a calibration sensitivity of − 0.0113 µA (log (concentration/mol L−1))−1, a linear concentration range of 1.0 × 10−20 to 1.0 × 10−12 mol L−1, and a detection limit of 3.9 × 10−21 mol L−1. It also showed an ability to differentiate between the complementary sequence and the base-mismatched and non-complementary sequences with a nice selectivity. Moreover, the designed biosensor was able to detect the TV genome with a calibration sensitivity of − 0.0774 µA (log (concentration/ng µL−1))−1, a linear range of 0.55–64 ng mL−1 and a detection limit of 1.0 pg µL−1. • Poly ortho-aminophenol (POAP) nanostructured thin film was formed via electropolymerization. • A thiolated specific probe DNA of trichomonas vaginalis was immobilized on the POAP surface. • Trichomonas vaginalis genome was detected by POAP nanotransducer with a high sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Trichomonas vaginalis, Gardrenella vaginalis, and Candida sp are responsible for 90% of vaginitis which has been reported as important risk factors for cervical cancer. Aim: This study aimed to find the prevalence of T. vaginalis, Candida sp, and G. vaginalis in women attended the cancer clinic charity, Babol, Iran and to identify the associated risk factors. Materials and Methods: This retrospective study carried out from 1996 to July 2012 on women who attended to a cancer screening program at the cancer clinics charity, Babol, Iran. Papanicolaou test and clinical examinations were performed for each woman. In addition to Papanicolaou test results, demographic data were collected. The data were analyzed with X2 test using SPSS software, version 18. Results: In total, 2511 out of 33600 (7.5%) cases had vaginal infections. A total of 71 (0.2%), 2248 (6.7%), and 192 (0.6%) of subjects were infected by T. vaginalis, Candida sp, and Gardnerella, respectively. The highest rate of infection was seen in 20-30 and 30-40 years age group. The frequency of vaginal ulcers was higher in trichomoniasis (14.1%). Conclusion: This study demonstrated that the prevalence of T. vaginalis, Candida sp, and Gardnerella was low among the studied population. Moreover, malignant cytological alternations were not seen in any infected women. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Background: To establish an infection in the vagina, Trichomonas vaginalis must adapt to various environmental cues for survival and further replication. Nutrient competition by lactobacilli, the major normal vaginal flora, is one of the mechanisms to limit the growth of other microorganisms. Additionally, lactobacilli produce H2O2 that can reduce the genital infections caused by other pathogens. Thus, the ability to overcome the metabolic stresses, such as glucose restriction (GR), as well as the oxidative stresses, is critical for T. vaginalis to establish an infection. Methods: To gain insights into the molecular mechanisms of adaptation to GR, we utilized next-generation RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to quantify the gene expression changes upon GR. Autophagy, a cytoprotective response to starvation, was monitored by using autophagy-specific staining, autophagy inhibition assay, and co-localization of autophagosomes with lysosomes. Results: We demonstrated that GR promotes the survival of T. vaginalis. Besides, GR-cultivated cells exhibit higher H2O2 resistance. Our RNA-seq data revealed that genes involved in general energy metabolism were downregulated, whereas genes encoding glutamate metabolism-related aminotransferases were strikingly upregulated under GR. Furthermore, autophagy was first identified and characterized in T. vaginalis under GR. Conclusions: These data suggest that GR induces a metabolic reprogramming, enhancing antioxidant ability and autophagy for cellular homeostasis to maintain survival. General significance: Our work not only led to significant advances in understanding the transcriptional changes in response to GR but also provided possible strategies elicited by GR for T. vaginalis to adapt to the vaginal microenvironment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Trichomonas vaginalis is the cause of one of the most common types of vaginitis, trichomoniasis. Clinical manifestations of symptomatic women are generally nonspecific, but include vaginal discharge, vaginitis and irritation. T. vaginalis infection has also been linked to the increased risk of human immunodeficiency virus transmission. The aim of the study was to compare a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay with culture and wet-mount examination for the detection of T. vaginalis. This is a descriptive analytical study. Vaginal swabs from 504 female patients with suspected vaginitis were included in the study. They were subjected to culture, wet-mount microscopic examination (WM), and real-time PCR. Real-time fluorescence resonance energy transfer hybridization probe PCR assays were used in this study to test for T. vaginalis DNA, targeting the b-tubulin genes. The result of the PCR was compared with culture and wet-mount microscopy. WM were positive for T. vaginalis in 60/504 cases (11.9%) and cultures were positive for T. vaginalis in 116/504 cases (23%). Real-time PCR was done on 50/504 specimens which was randomly chosen, 33/50 (66%) cases were positive for T. vaginalis (78% sensitivity), 25/50 (50%) of them were culture and wet-mount examination positive. Of them, 1/33 (3%) were culture positive and wet examination negative, 7/33 (21%) real-time positive were negative by culture while 17/50 (34%) real-time PCR negative cases were also negative by both techniques. The time taken for PCR assay was 4 to 8 h whereas positive protozoal cultures took up to 4 days. The Real-time PCR done in this study, provide a rapid, sensitive and specific diagnosis of T. vaginalis infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Trichomonas vaginalis is a parasitic protozoan that causes sexually transmitted infections (STIs) worldwide. The infection is dangerous and easily spreads within a community. Also, some cases of drug resistance were reported. Previously, we reported that the shrimp anti-lipopolysaccharide factor (SALF), an antimicrobial peptide of 24 amino acids, modulates inflammatory responses and inhibits T. vaginalis growth. To date, there is no report on the mechanism of SALF''s actions in T. vaginalis’ adherence to HeLa cells. In this research using an ELISA, we found that the SALF downregulated the release of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-6, IL-8, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1) secreted by T. vaginalis which was adhering to HeLa cells. We also performed real-time PCR experiments to determine the roles of the SALF in the expressions of several proinflammatory genes. Through a Western blot analysis, we determined that SALF treatment inhibited T. vaginalis-treated HeLa cells through the p38 and NF-κB pathways. Furthermore, we used different inhibitors to confirm the pathway by ELISA and Western blotting. Taken together, it is apparent that the SALF suppresses T. vaginalis-induced secretion of proinflammatory cytokines by HeLa cells by acting through the p38 and NF-κB pathways. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Trichomonas vaginalis is a sexually transmitted protozoan infection resulting in vulvo-vaginitis and altered vaginal discharge in symptomatic women. Trichomoniasis has been implicated in causing adverse pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight and pre-term labour. Metronidazole is the recommended first-line treatment for trichomonal infection. Other nitroimidazoles, such as tinidazole, are used as alternative regimens with similar activity but at a greater expense. Treatment failure usually represents patient non-compliance or re-infection, although metronidazole resistance has previously been documented. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing for T. vaginalis is currently not available in the UK. Patients with disease unresponsive to first-line treatments pose a major challenge, as therapeutic options are limited. We present the case of a patient with presumed resistant infection during pregnancy, and the additional treatment issues that this presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The flagellated protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis has been widely studied owing to its medical significance and unique structure. The complicated three-dimensional (3D) structure of the cellular components of T. vaginalis was reconstructed from serial sections to enable observation of the spatial features of the whole cell. Electron tomography was used to examine the detailed structure of the cellular organelles. Tomographic reconstruction showed the mastigont system and the parabasal filament of T. vaginalis in detail. The last thin filament (Pf3) was located close to the adjacent filament, and the two filaments appeared to be vertically parallel in the cross-sectional view. It is likely that Pf3 cannot be distinguished from the adjacent filament in 2D images obtained from transmission electron microscopy. Our 3D reconstruction of T. vaginalis revealed the presence of an additional striated fiber, and 3D reconstruction by electron tomography showed twisting of the split parabasal filament. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]