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Non-native pests, climate change, and their interactions are likely to alter relationships between trees and tree-associated organisms with consequences for forest health. To understand and predict such changes, factors structuring tree-associated communities need to be determined. Here, we analysed the data consisting of records of insects and fungi collected from dormant twigs from 155 tree species at 51 botanical gardens or arboreta in 32 countries. Generalized dissimilarity models revealed similar relative importance of studied climatic, host-related and geographic factors on differences in tree-associated communities. Mean annual temperature, phylogenetic distance between hosts and geographic distance between locations were the major drivers of dissimilarities. The increasing importance of high temperatures on differences in studied communities indicate that climate change could affect tree-associated organisms directly and indirectly through host range shifts. Insect and fungal communities were more similar between closely related vs. distant hosts suggesting that host range shifts may facilitate the emergence of new pests. Moreover, dissimilarities among tree-associated communities increased with geographic distance indicating that human-mediated transport may serve as a pathway of the introductions of new pests. The results of this study highlight the need to limit the establishment of tree pests and increase the resilience of forest ecosystems to changes in climate. Nasl. z nasl. zaslona. Opis vira z dne 19. 7. 2023. Skupno št. avtorjev: 83, avtorja iz Slovenija: B. Piškur, M. de Groot. Bibliografija: str. 10-12. Abstract.

European forests are becoming increasingly threatened by climate change and more frequent droughts. The likely responses of species to climate change will vary, affecting their competitiveness, their existence, and consequently, forest management decisions and measures. We determined the influence of climate on the radial growth of European beech and silver fir along the Carpathians to find similarities between the two species and the main differences. Along the Carpathian Mountains, seven sites with mature fir–beech stands above 800 m above sea level were selected and analyzed. Our study confirmed different responses depending on species and location. A more pronounced response of tree growth to climate was observed on the eastern side of the Carpathians, while it was less expressed or even absent on the southern sites. Both beech and fir show better radial growth with higher precipitation in July and slower growth with higher average and maximum temperatures in June of the current year. Fir demonstrates a positive correlation between radial growth and temperature in winter, while beech demonstrates a negative correlation between radial growth and temperature in summer. In the 1951–1960 decade, the average tree ring widths in fir and beech were largest at the southern sites compared to the other sites, but since 2011, the southern sites have had the lowest increase while northern sites have had the largest. Both species respond differently to climate and are likely to follow different competitive paths in the future. Nasl. z nasl. zaslona. Opis vira z dne 28. 6. 2023. Bibliografija: str. 12-13.

In this paper we evaluated key forestry related topics in the journal Landscape Ecology in the period 1987-2021 using keyword analysis to highlight which forestry topics have been relevant for landscape ecologists from the inception of the IALE organisation until present. Our analysis has shown that forests have far too often been just a framework for research focusing on management interventions in the forest. The three key words with the highest frequencies were forest/wood fragmentation, forest management and forest(s). Until now, however, we have not made sufficient use of the opportunity to study the field of forest ecosystem functionning at the landscape level. Suggestions for future reserch are therefore given. V pričujočem prispevku smo ovrednotili ključne gozdarske teme v reviji Landscape Ecology v obdobju 1987–2021 z analizo ključnih besed, da bi poudarili, katere gozdarske teme so bile pomembne za krajinske ekologe od ustanovitve organizacije IALE do danes. Naša analiza je pokazala, da so bili gozdovi vse prevečkrat le okvir za raziskovanje gospodarskih posegov v gozd. Tri ključne besede z najvišjo frekvenco so bile fragmentacija gozda, gospodarjenje z gozdovi in gozd(ovi). Doslej še nismo dovolj izkoristili možnosti preučevanja področja delovanja gozdnih ekosistemov na krajinski ravni. Zato so podani predlogi za prihodnje raziskave.

We investigated several aspects of windthrow that are relevant to our understanding and management of forest ecosystems. As an example, we used an extreme event in December 2017, when the strongest storm in recent history occurred in the Slovenian Dinaric High Karst. We examined influential factors such as soil properties, wind speed, precipitation and ecological consequences for the affected forests. Soil properties were measured around standing and fallen silver fir trees at all three research sites. Tree species composition in the regeneration was observed on plots with chemical and acoustic ungulate deterrents and on control plots without deterrents. Economic estimates of yield loss due to damage were calculated at the national level. A model of the potential threat from windthrow was also developed based on data collected from windthrow events and meteorological data over the past 20 years. Our results indicate that soil depth and mineral fraction depth were similar at sites with and without damaged trees and were not the determining factors for tree toppling. Plots with acoustic deterrents showed the most effective regeneration development, the least decline in silver fir and the greatest increase in noble hardwood seedlings, while plots with chemical deterrents showed the least browsing damage. The estimated economic loss of €16.1 million is 6.6% less than the harvest under normal conditions. The economic loss was relatively low due to the nature of the storm, with the predominant type of damage being uprooted trees with no damaged trunks. The windthrow hazard model revealed that a large number of consecutive events with strong winds in each section weakened the stand, which was subsequently knocked down during the next extreme wind and rainfall event. Raziskali in analizirali smo problematiko vetrolomov z različnih vidikov, pomembnih za naše razumevanje in upravljanje gozdnih ekosistemov. Kot primer smo uporabili ekstremni dogodek iz decembra 2017, ko je slovenski visoki dinarski kras prizadel najmočnejši vetrolom v novejši zgodovini. Da bi razumeli vzroke in ekološke posledice te obsežne motnje, smo gozdove na treh različnih lokacijah v Dinarskem območju preučevali iz različnih vidikov, ki so lahko vzroki za škodo zaradi vetroloma ali pa njegova posledica. Lastnosti tal smo izmerili okoli stoječih in podrtih dreves na vseh treh raziskovalnih lokacijah. Prav tako smo na vseh lokacijah spremljali sestavo drevesnega mladja na ploskvah, opremljenih s kemičnimi in zvočnimi odvračali za parkljarje, ter kontrolnih ploskvah brez odvračal. Ekonomske ocene zaradi izgube donosa zaradi škode smo izračunali za nacionalno raven. Na podlagi zbranih podatkov vetrolomov in meteoroloških podatkov v zadnjih 20 letih smo izdelali model potencialne ogroženosti zaradi vetrolomov. Lastnosti gozdnih tal niso vzrok za vetrolom, vendar pa spadajo med dejavnike vpliva na poškodbe dreves zaradi vetroloma. V naši raziskavi so se talne lastnosti na mestih s poškodovanimi drevesi in brez njih izkazale za statistično neznačilne in niso bile odločilen dejavnik za prevračanje dreves. Ploskve z zvočnimi odvračali so pokazale najuspešnejši razvoj mladja, tj. najmanjši upad pri jelki in največje povečanje pri plemenitih listavcih, medtem ko so ploskve s kemičnimi odvračali pokazale najmanjšo škodo zaradi objedanja. Ocenjena gospodarska izguba v višini 16,1 milijona evrov je za 6,6 % manjša od poseka v običajnih okoliščinah. Gospodarska škoda je bila zaradi narave neurja razmeroma majhna, saj je bila večina škode v obliki izruvanih dreves brez poškodovanih debel. Model nevarnosti pojava vetrolomov je pokazal, da je veliko število zaporednih dogodkov z močnimi vetrovi na vsakem odseku oslabilo sestoj, ki je bil posledično uničen ob naslednjem ekstremnem dogodku vetra in padavin.

We have expanded our knowledge of the localities, sites and distribution of the Amelanchiero ovalis-Pinetum mugo association in the Slovenian Alps. Based on phytocenological analyses, the shrub association belonging to the forest vegetation type Alpine mountain pine scrub was divided into two subassociations: peucedanetosum oreoselini and hylocomiadelphetosum triquetri. We also described four variants within the latter association. We have expanded our knowledge of the localities, sites and distribution of the Amelanchiero ovalis-Pinetum mugo association in the Slovenian Alps. Based on phytocenological analyses, the shrub association belonging to the forest vegetation type Alpine mountain pine scrub was divided into two subassociations: peucedanetosum oreoselini and hylocomiadelphetosum triquetri. We also described four variants within the latter association.

Les na prostem je izpostavljen različnim dejavnikom, kar povzroča sivenje oziroma staranje lesa. Procesi staranja so glede na izpostavitev lahko zelo različni. Deli lesa, ki niso izpostavljeni padavinam npr. so pod napuščem so manj izpostavljeni zato so procesi staranja počasnejši. Spremembo barve lahko pospešimo s pripravki na osnovi železovih ionov. Tako les hitro in enakomerno spremni bravo v sive tone. Vendar je barva po obdelavi z železom odvisna tudi od predhodnega staranja lesa. V naši raziskavi smo spremljali spremembo barve glede na staranje in obdelavo. Vzorce smo pred obdelavo starali na prostem za različna časovna obdobja in jih nato obdelali s 5 % raztopino železovega(II) sulfata. Vzorce smo obdelali tako, da smo jih za 10 sekund potopili v raztopino železovega(II) sulfata in nato 24 ur kondicionirali, preden smo jih izpostavili vremenskim vplivom. Drugi del eksperimenta smo ugotavljali vpliv padavin na spremembo barve. Ugotovili smo, da čas predhodnega staranja vpliva na spremembo barve, saj so vzorci starani 5 tednov dosegli najbližjo barvo naravno staranemu lesu. Pri spremljanju vpliva padavin smo ugotovili, da padavine vplivajo na spremembo barve, saj so izpostavljeni vzorci intenzivneje in hitreje spremenili barvo od ne izpostavljenih. Outdoor wood is exposed to various factors, which causes greying or aging of the wood. Aging processes can be very different depending on the exposure. Parts of wood that are not exposed to external factors, e.g., they are under the eaves, are less exposed and therefore the aging process is slower. This can be accelerated by solutions based on iron ions. Thus, the wood turns grey quickly and evenly. However, the colour after iron treatment also depends on the previous aging of the wood. In our research, we monitored the change in colour depending on aging and processing. Before treatment, the samples were aged in the open air for different periods of time and then treated with a 5% solution of iron(II) sulphate. The samples were treated by immersion in the solution for 10 seconds and conditioned for 24 hours before exposure. Some of the samples were exposed to precipitation, where we determined the influence of precipitation on the colour change. We found that the aging time affects the colour change, as samples aged 5 weeks reached the closest colour to naturally aged wood. When monitoring the impact of precipitation, we found that precipitation affects the colour change, as the exposed samples changed colour more intensively and faster than the unexposed ones.

Poslovni model podjetju omogoča strateški vpogled v poslovanje in iskanje novih poslovnih priložnosti ter usmeritev. Spletna trgovina z leseno športno opremo je v zadnjem času pokazala velik potencial, za širitev in boljše medsebojno delovanje z obstoječim mizarskim podjetjem pa je bil potreben razvoj novega poslovnega modela. Za primerjavo smo analizirali podobna podjetja in preučili najpomembnejše lastnosti stranke spletne trgovine z leseno športno opremo. Pri razvoju poslovnega modela smo ugotovili, da je največja vrednost za kupca v funkcionalnosti, kakovosti in trajnosti izdelkov, veliko pa pripomore tudi slovensko poreklo. Ključni vir spletne trgovine bi v prihodnosti morala postati blagovna znamka, kar bi dosegli z gradnjo transparentnega odnosa s stranko. Pri raziskovanju povezanosti spletne trgovine z leseno športno opremo in obstoječega mizarskega podjetja smo ugotovili, da skupen poslovni model sicer ni mogoč, se pa dejavnosti odlično kombinirata v določenih segmentih poslovnega modela, kjer je moč poiskati tudi ključne sinergijske učinke. A business model enables companies to have a strategic insight into their business, and points to new opportunities and directions. An online store offering wooden sports equipment has recently shown great potential. For further expansion and better interaction with an existing furniture manufacturing company, the development of a new business model was necessary. As an example, we analysed similar companies and examined the most important characteristics of an online store customer. When developing the business model, we focused on the building blocks of values and customers. We found that the greatest value of the online store besides the Slovenian origin is in the functionality, quality and sustainability of the products. In the future, the key resource of an online store should become the brand, which would be achieved by building a transparent relationship with the customers. When researching the connection between an online store and an existing company, we found that a common business model is not possible, but the two ventures are perfectly combined in terms of the utilization of the production facility and mutual advertising.

Natural regeneration of tree species is sensitive to silvicultural interventions. This study aimed to investigate the effects of different cutting intensities and local topographic and soil conditions on the composition of stable carbon (δ13C) and oxygen (δ18O) isotopes in wood of young beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) trees. Beech saplings in the regeneration layer were sampled in summer 2018 at three study sites in Dinaric fir-beech forests in the karst area of Slovenia. Three different cutting intensities were performed in 2012: i) no cutting (control), ii) 50% cutting of the stand’s growing stock creating thinned stands, and iii) 100% cutting of the stand’s growing stock creating 0.4 ha canopy gaps. We show that δ13C increased along the gradient of cutting intensity. On average, δ13C values in the tree rings were ∼ 2‰ increased in trees from canopy gaps than from closed control stands. Furthermore, δ13C was higher on south-facing slopes characterized by higher air temperatures and lower relative humidity compared to north-facing slopes of karst sinkholes. Additionally, the results suggest a dependence of δ18O on interannual and cross-site climatic variations, particularly in the case of summer precipitation amount. δ18O also responded to soil depth, with beech individuals exhibiting lower values on deeper soils, presumably characterized by higher soil water availability compared to shallow soils. The results are discussed in the context of future climate change, as many beech-dominated forests on karst terrain in the Dinaric Mountains are particularly affected by climate warming and drying due to prolonged and reoccurring summer droughts, intensified large-scale disturbances, and often shallow soils with low water storage capacity. Nasl. z nasl. zaslona. Opis vira z dne 5. 4. 2023. Bibliografija: str. 12-14. Abstract. Abstract.

The monitoring of seasonal radial growth of woody plants addresses the ultimate question of when, how and why trees grow. Assessing the growth dynamics is important to quantify the effect of environmental drivers and understand how woody species will deal with the ongoing climatic changes. One of the crucial steps in the analyses of seasonal radial growth is to model the dynamics of xylem and phloem formation based on increment measurements on samples taken at relatively short intervals during the growing season. The most common approach is the use of the Gompertz equation, while other approaches, such as general additive models (GAMs) and generalised linear models (GLMs), have also been tested in recent years. For the first time, we explored artificial neural networks with Bayesian regularisation algorithm (BRNNs) and show that this method is easy to use, resistant to overfitting, tends to yield s-shaped curves and is therefore suitable for deriving temporal dynamics of secondary tree growth. We propose two data processing algorithms that allow more flexible fits. The main result of our work is the XPSgrowth() function implemented in the radial Tree Growth (rTG) R package, that can be used to evaluate and compare three modelling approaches: BRNN, GAM and the Gompertz function. The newly developed function, tested on intra-seasonal xylem and phloem formation data, has potential applications in many ecological and environmental disciplines where growth is expressed as a function of time. Different approaches were evaluated in terms of prediction error, while fitted curves were visually compared to derive their main characteristics. Our results suggest that there is no single best fitting method, therefore we recommend testing different fitting methods and selection of the optimal one. Nasl. z nasl. zaslona. Opis vira z dne 21. 7. 2022. Bibliografija: str. 7-8.

Reliable data and methods for assessing changes in wildlife population size over time are necessary for management and conservation. For most species, assessing abundance is an expensive and labor-intensive task that is not affordable on a frequent basis. We present a novel approach to reconstructing brown bear population dynamics in Slovenia in the period 1998-2019, based on the combination of two CMR non-invasive genetic estimates (in 2007 and 2015) and long-term mortality records, to show how the latter can help the study of population dynamics in combination with point-in-time estimates. The spring (i.e. including newborn cubs) population size estimate was 383 (CI: 336-432) bears in 1998 and 971 (CI: 825-1161) bears in 2019. In this period, the average annual population growth rate was 4.5 %. The predicted population size differed by just 7 % from the non-invasive genetic size estimate after eight years, suggesting that the method is reliable. It can predict the evolution of the population size under different management scenarios and provide information on key parameters, e.g. background mortality and the sex- and age-structure of the population. Our approach can be used for several other wildlife species, but it requires reliable mortality data over time. Za upravljanje in ohranjanje populacij prostoživečih živali so potrebni zanesljivi podatki in metode za ocenjevanje njihove številčnosti. Ugotavljanje številčnosti je pri večini vrst drago in zahtevno, zato ga ni mogoče pogosto izvajati. V članku predstavljamo nov pristop, ki smo ga pripravili na primeru rekonstrukcije populacijske dinamike rjavega medveda v Sloveniji v obdobju 1998-2019. Pristop temelji na kombinaciji dveh ocen njegove številčnosti z neinvazivnimi genetskimi metodami (v letih 2007 in 2015) in dolgoletnega niza podatkov monitoringa smrtnosti. Ocena 'pomladanske' (t.j. največje letne - po poleganju mladičev) številčnosti rjavega medveda v Sloveniji za leto 1998 znaša 383 (CI: 336-432), za leto 2019 pa 971 osebkov (CI: 825-1161). Povprečna letna stopnja rasti populacije je bila v tem obdobju 4,5 %. Modelno ocenjena številčnost populacije se je od ugotovljene z genetsko metodo po osmih letih razlikovala le za 7 %, kar nakazuje, da je pristop zanesljiv oz. so njegovi rezultati za upravljavske namene dovolj kakovostni. Pristop omogoča tudi napovedovanje prihodnje populacijske dinamike pri različnih scenarijih upravljanja in okvirno ocenjevanje ključnih populacijskih parametrov, kot so spolna in starostna sestava, relativna rodnost in naravna smrtnost populacije. Pristop je uporaben tudi za več drugih populacij in živalskih vrst, vendar so zanj potrebni zanesljivi dolgoletni podatki o smrtnosti.

Interrelations of various common beech vitality indicators (crown defoliation, foliar chemistry, radial growth) as well as their possible dependencies on climatic conditions were investigated over the course of 12 years in a mature and healthy beech stand. Our results confirm the importance of temperature variables for defoliation, as high temperatures during spring and summer months induce the increase of defoliation. The same negative influence was observed with high maximum temperatures and low precipitation during previous year summer months. Phosphorus, calcium and magnesium nutrition of beech trees suffers from high temperatures during current year summer and benefits from more precipitation. High temperatures in current year May positively influence beech radial growth, while a wide range of minimum temperatures during March and June has a negative effect. In summary, high summer temperatures and low precipitation were shown to have a negative effect on all vitality indicators, and for defoliation and nutrition this effect can last into the following year., Međuovisnosti različitih uobičajenih indikatora vitaliteta obične bukve (osutost krošnje, stanje ishrane, širina goda) kao i njihove moguće ovisnosti o klimatskim uvjetima istraživani su tijekom razdoblja od dvanaest godina u zreloj i zdravoj sastojini bukve na plohi intenzivnog motrenja br. 103 (Sljeme). Ploha se nalazi u sastojini bukve i jele (Festuco drymeiae – Abietetum Vukelić et Baričević 2007) na Medvednici, na 954 m nadmorske visine i južnoj ekspoziciji. Naši rezultati potvrđuju važnost temperature za osutost, jer visoke temperature tijekom proljetnih i ljetnih mjeseci utječu na porast osutosti. Isti negativan utjecaj je zabilježen u slučaju visokih maksimalnih temperatura i niske količine oborine u ljeto prethodne godine. Bukva je bila osobito osjetljiva na sušne godine ili natprosječno tople godine koje se pojavljuju u nizu.Ishrana bukovih stabala fosforom, kalcijem i magnezijem lošija je u slučaju visokih temperatura tijekom ljeta tekuće godine, a poboljšava se porastom oborine. Također, u našem istraživanju utvrdili smo negativnu korelaciju koncentracije kalija u lišću sa širinom godova. Smatramo kako se ne radi o negativnom učinku kalija na rast bukve, već o posljedici slabijeg usvajanja kalcija u sušnim godinama. Visoke temperature u svibnju tekuće godine pozitivno utječu na prirast, dok široki raspon minimalnih temperatura tijekom ožujka i lipnja ima negativan učinak. Nije utvrđen izravan utjecaj oborine na širinu goda. Ukratko, visoke ljetne temperature i niske količine oborine negativno utječu, izravno ili neizravno, na sve istraživane indikatore, a kod osutosti i ishrane taj efekt može biti značajan i u sljedećoj godini.

The mechanistic pathways connecting ocean-atmosphere variability and terrestrial productivity are well-established theoretically, but remain challenging to quantify empirically. Such quantification will greatly improve the assessment and prediction of changes in terrestrial carbon sequestration in response to dynamically induced climatic extremes. The jet stream latitude (JSL) over the North Atlantic-European domain provides a synthetic and robust physical framework that integrates climate variability not accounted for by atmospheric circulation patterns alone. Surface climate impacts of north-south summer JSL displacements are not uniform across Europe, but rather create a northwestern-southeastern dipole in forest productivity and radial-growth anomalies. Summer JSL variability over the eastern North Atlantic-European domain (5-40E) exerts the strongest impact on European beech, inducing anomalies of up to 30% in modelled gross primary productivity and 50% in radial tree growth. The net effects of JSL movements on terrestrial carbon fluxes depend on forest density, carbon stocks, and productivity imbalances across biogeographic regions. Here the authors show that extremes in the summer jet stream position over Europe create a beech forest productivity dipole between northwestern and southeastern Europe and can result in regional anomalies in forest carbon uptake and growth., This work was supported by Fundacio La Caixa through the Junior Leader Program (LCF/BQ/LR18/11640004) and the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid through the Programa Propio (PINV-18-SBSYN2-105-F1TXYR). The following authors acknowledge funding support. I.D.L.: Agnese N. Haury Visiting Scholar & Trainee Fellowship (Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, University of Arizona), the Mobility Award Jose Castillejo, Ministry of Education, Spanish Government (CAS19/00331) and the Programa de Ayudas Beatriz Galindo, Secretaría de Estado de Universidades, Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación (#BG20/00065). V.T.: National Science Foundation CAREER grant (AGS-1349942). B.A.: Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the JeDiS project (RTI-2018-096402-B-I00). F.B.: project "Inside out" (#POIR.04.04.00-00-5F85/18-00) funded by the HOMING program of the Foundation for Polish Science co-financed by the European Union under the European Regional Development Fund. AB, AM, CSZ: Bavarian Ministry of Science and the Arts in the context of the Bavarian Climate Research Network (BayKliF). A.H.: PinCaR project (UHU-1266324) by ERD Funds, Andalucía Regional Government, Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad 2014-2020. EM-S: Swiss National Science Foundation project TRoxy (No. 200021_175888). A.S.J.: Natural Environment Research Council grants NE/V00929X/1 and NE/S010041/1. J.K., L.M., M.M.T., R.W., M.W.: research training group RESPONSE funded by the German Research Council (DFG Fi 846/8-1, DFG GRK2010). AMP: Romanian Ministry of Research, Innovation, and Digitization, Project-PN-19070506/Ctr. no. 12N/2019. I.C.P.: grant of the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research, CNCS-UEFISCDI within PNCDI III (PN-III-P4-ID-PCE-2020-2696). R.S.S.: DendrOlavide I (EQC2018-005303-P), Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, Spain; DendrOlavide II (IE19_074 UPO), VURECLIM (P20_00813) and VULBOS (UPO-1263216). T.L.: Slovenian Research Agency-research core funding no. P4-0107 Program research group "Forest Biology, Ecology and Technology". We thank Virgilio Gómez-Rubio for assistance and advice on the LMM development. We thank Christoph Dittmar, Wolfram Elling, and numerous students of the University of Applied Sciences Weihenstephan-Triesdorf for providing European beech tree-ring chronologies.

Forest composed of Picea abies L., Abies alba Mill. and Fagus sylvatica L. cover a large area in the European mountain regions and have a high ecological and socio-economic importance as they supply many ecosystems services. Because of climate change, these forests are exposed to warming, and this effect increases with elevation, which may impact their delivery of goods and services. Previous studies did not find significant changes in the overall productivity of these species over the last 30 years, but they observed changes in species competitiveness at the species and tree levels. In this study, we aimed to link previous results on tree, species and stand level growth in spruce-fir-beech mixed mountain forests by analysing species size distribution dynamics under different climate conditions and their effect on stand growth. We developed a matrix model based on data from 76 long-term experimental plots distributed throughout Europe. We used the change in stand basal area to explore whether temperature modifies species size dominances and proportions, whether the temperature effects on changes in species basal area depend on species size dominance, and whether the effect of species size dominance on changes in the stand basal area varies with temperature. Our results showed that annual mean temperature is an important climatic driver of species dynamics in spruce-fir-beech mixed mountain forests, such that stand basal area growth was favored by higher temperatures, particularly due to positive responses of silver fir which were greater than negative effects of temperature on European beech. The high temperatures also favored the size-dominance of silver fir, while European beech tended to have smaller diameters, independent of the temperature. We also found that the identity of the size-dominant species also influenced changes in stand basal area, with the highest or the lowest changes when Norway spruce and European beech were the size-dominant species, respectively. Silver fir was less influenced by the identity of the size-dominant species than by temperature. Therefore, although mixed mountain forests of spruce-fir-beech were found to be resilient systems in terms of stand productivity, we conclude that increasing temperatures may modify species dynamics and consequently silvicultural interventions will be needed to control species proportions and dominances.

Urban and peri-urban forests are important habitats for maintaining biodiversity in cities. In this paper, we report a method for using hoverflies as biodiversity indicators in urban forest habitats. As a case study, forest habitats in three peri-urban and urban forests were assessed and compared to rural forests in Slovenia. Rožnik (Ljubljana) was chosen as the urban forest site, Mestni log (Ljubljana) and Brdo (Kranj) were chosen as the peri-urban sites, and eight sites were chosen in rural forests in different ecoregions in Slovenia. Forest hoverfly species richness and the species composition of different biological traits were compared between the peri-urban forests, urban forest and rural forest sites. In addition, species richness was assessed for changes in response to weather conditions between years. The number of species with the investigated traits in the urban and peri-urban forests was within the range of the number of species observed in the rural forests. The number of saproxylic species was higher in the urban forest but lower in the peri-urban forests compared to the rural forests. The proportions of species with different feeding modes and different development times were similar between the peri-urban, urban and rural forests. The proportions of species with development times of less than 2 months or more than 1 year and of predatory species were similar in the urban and peri-urban forests but higher in the rural forests. The species composition of the other biological traits differed between the peri-urban, urban and rural forests. Species richness and abundance displayed large differences in phenological patterns between 2012 and 2013 these differences are related to differences in the minimum temperature for these years. The results are discussed in relation to forest management in urban forests, the usefulness of hoverflies as a biodiversity indicator and possible extrapolation to other species groups. Mestni in primestni gozdovi sestavljajo pomembne habitate za ohranjanje biotske pestrosti v mestih. V tem članku predstavljamo metodo za uporabo muh trepetavk kot kazalnikov biotske pestrosti v urbanih gozdnih habitatih. To metodo smo uporabili za oceno gozdnih habitatov v treh primestnih in mestnih gozdovih ter jih primerjali s podeželskimi gozdovi v Sloveniji. Kot mestni gozd je bil izbran Rožnik (Ljubljana), kot primestni gozd sta bila izbrana Mestni log (Ljubljana) in Brdo (Kranj), kot podeželske gozdove v različnih ekoloških regijah v Sloveniji pa smo izbrali osem gozdnih območij. V teh gozdovih smo primerjali bogatost gozdnih vrst muh trepetavk in njihovo vrstno sestavo glede na biološke lastnosti v izbranih mestnih, primestnih in podeželskih gozdovih. Poleg tega smo spremljali tudi odziv vrstne pestrost muh trepetavk glede na različne vremenske razmere med posameznimi leti. Število vrst z raziskanimi biološkimi lastnostmi v mestnih in primestnih gozdovih je bilo v podobnem razponu kot v podeželskih gozdovih. Število saproksilnih vrst je bilo večje v mestnih in manjše v primestnih gozdovih kot v podeželskih gozdovih. Deleži vrst z različnimi načini prehranjevanja in različnim trajanjem razvoja so bili podobni med mestnimi, primestnimi in podeželskimi gozdovi. Deleži vrst, katerih razvoj traja manj kot dva meseca ali več kot eno leto, ter deleži plenilskih vrst so bili podobni v mestnih in primestnih gozdovih, ne pa tudi v podeželskih gozdovih. Vrstna sestava drugih bioloških lastnosti se je med primestnimi in mestnimi ter podeželskimi gozdovi razlikovala. Bogatost vrst in njihova številčnost sta pokazali velike razlike v fenološkem razvoju muh trepetavk v letih 2012 in 2013. Te razlike so povezane z razlikami v minimalni temperaturi zraka v teh letih. Rezultati so obravnavani v povezavi z gospodarjenjem z mestnimi gozdovi, primernostjo muh trepetavk kot kazalnika biotske pestrosti in možnostjo za razširitev predlagane metodologije na druge skupine vrst.

Green (and blue) spaces receive attention as important components of cities that can help to mitigate the effects of climate change, support biodiversity and improve public health. Green space planning aims to transform cities towards urban sustainability and resilience. In a longitudinal study, representatives from eleven European municipalities that had previously been interviewed in 2014 were re-interviewed in 2020–2021 on changes in urban greening and related practices. The interviewees reported mainly advancements in dealing with ecological issues, such as new plans, strategies, regulations or funding programmes for climate adaptation or biodiversity support, as well as some progress in co-governance with non-governmental stakeholders. Promising developments include breaking professional silos by creating new units that can better deal with complex urban issues. In a few cases, high-level local politicians induced profound changes. These changes stimulated the development of new planning and governance cultures, resulting in more co-creation of urban green spaces. However, from a transformation studies perspective, incremental strategies dominate, and even when municipal representatives are aware that substantive changes are needed, they often lack the means to act. For more radical system change, significant extra efforts are needed.

In this paper we evaluated key forestry related topics in the journal Landscape Ecology in the period 1987-2021 using keyword analysis to highlight which forestry topics have been relevant for landscape ecologists from the inception of the IALE organisation until present. Our analysis has shown that forests have far too often been just a framework for research focusing on management interventions in the forest. The three key words with the highest frequencies were forest/wood fragmentation, forest management and forest(s). Until now, however, we have not made sufficient use of the opportunity to study the field of forest ecosystem functionning at the landscape level. Suggestions for future reserch are therefore given. V pričujočem prispevku smo ovrednotili ključne gozdarske teme v reviji Landscape Ecology v obdobju 1987–2021 z analizo ključnih besed, da bi poudarili, katere gozdarske teme so bile pomembne za krajinske ekologe od ustanovitve organizacije IALE do danes. Naša analiza je pokazala, da so bili gozdovi vse prevečkrat le okvir za raziskovanje gospodarskih posegov v gozd. Tri ključne besede z najvišjo frekvenco so bile fragmentacija gozda, gospodarjenje z gozdovi in gozd(ovi). Doslej še nismo dovolj izkoristili možnosti preučevanja področja delovanja gozdnih ekosistemov na krajinski ravni. Zato so podani predlogi za prihodnje raziskave.

The societal demands on forest management are becoming increasingly diverse, which will be reflected in decisions made by forest owners. We examined the willingness of private forest owners in Austria, Finland, Germany, Slovenia, and Sweden to participate in a contract-based payment scheme in which they were asked to apply a specific management strategy to promote either timber production or environmental goals. The preferences for the contract-based management and associated consequences in terms of profitability, biodiversity, carbon stock, and climate change-induced damages were addressed within a choice experiment. A majority of respondents across all countries agreed to participate in a payment scheme to promote environmental goals, while schemes purely targeted to increase wood production were found less attractive. Forest owners liked improvements in profitability and environmental attributes and disliked deterioration of these attributes. Differences among countries were found in the level of expected contract payments, and commonalities were found with respect to preferences towards environmental goals, including biodiversity and carbon stocks. Hence, new policies to target European forest subsidy to promote the provision of environmental goals would likely be acceptable. Bibliografija: str. 12-13.

Wood resources have been essential for human welfare throughout history. Also nowadays, the volume of growing stock (GS) is considered one of the most important forest attributes monitored by National Forest Inventories (NFIs) to inform policy decisions and forest management planning. The origins of forest inventories closely relate to times of early wood shortage in Europe causing the need to explore and plan the utilisation of GS in the catchment areas of mines, saltworks and settlements. Over time, forest surveys became more detailed and their scope turned to larger areas, although they were still conceived as stand-wise inventories. In the 1920s, the first sample-based NFIs were introduced in the northern European countries. Since the earliest beginnings, GS monitoring approaches have considerably evolved. Current NFI methods differ due to country-specific conditions, inventory traditions, and information needs. Consequently, GS estimates were lacking international comparability and were therefore subject to recent harmonisation efforts to meet the increasing demand for consistent forest resource information at European level. As primary large-area monitoring programmes in most European countries, NFIs assess a multitude of variables, describing various aspects of sustainable forest management, including for example wood supply, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity. Many of these contemporary subject matters involve considerations about GS and its changes, at different geographic levels and time frames from past to future developments according to scenario simulations. Due to its historical, continued and currently increasing importance, we provide an up-to-date review focussing on large-area GS monitoring where we i) describe the origins and historical development of European NFIs, ii) address the terminology and present GS definitions of NFIs, iii) summarise the current methods of 23 European NFIs including sampling methods, tree measurements, volume models, estimators, uncertainty components, and the use of air- and space-borne data sources, iv) present the recent progress in NFI harmonisation in Europe, and v) provide an outlook under changing climate and forest-based bioeconomy objectives.

Wood resources have been essential for human welfare throughout history. Also nowadays, the volume of growing stock (GS) is considered one of the most important forest attributes monitored by National Forest Inventories (NFIs) to inform policy decisions and forest management planning. The origins of forest inventories closely relate to times of early wood shortage in Europe causing the need to explore and plan the utilisation of GS in the catchment areas of mines, saltworks and settlements. Over time, forest surveys became more detailed and their scope turned to larger areas, although they were still conceived as stand-wise inventories. In the 1920s, the first sample-based NFIs were introduced in the northern European countries. Since the earliest beginnings, GS monitoring approaches have considerably evolved. Current NFI methods differ due to country-specific conditions, inventory traditions, and information needs. Consequently, GS estimates were lacking international comparability and were therefore subject to recent harmonisation efforts to meet the increasing demand for consistent forest resource information at European level. As primary large-area monitoring programmes in most European countries, NFIs assess a multitude of variables, describing various aspects of sustainable forest management, including for example wood supply, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity. Many of these contemporary subject matters involve considerations about GS and its changes, at different geographic levels and time frames from past to future developments according to scenario simulations. Due to its historical, continued and currently increasing importance, we provide an up-to-date review focussing on large-area GS monitoring where we i) describe the origins and historical development of European NFIs, ii) address the terminology and present GS definitions of NFIs, iii) summarise the current methods of 23 European NFIs including sampling methods, tree measurements, volume models, estimators, uncertainty components, and the use of air- and space-borne data sources, iv) present the recent progress in NFI harmonisation in Europe, and v) provide an outlook under changing climate and forest-based bioeconomy objectives.

The research aimed to determine the start, end and duration of leafing phases, the degree of plant damage caused by late spring frost, and the retention of leaves in autumn. The research was conducted in the international common beech provenance test in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The test contains eight provenances from Bosnia and Herzegovina, four from Germany, three from Serbia, two each from Croatia, Romania and Switzerland, and one from Hungary. Leafing phenology, canopy damage caused by late spring frost, and leaf retention were assessed in 2019. Most provenances started opening buds on 17 April 2019. Complete canopy damage affected the highest percentage of plants in provenance BW Bad Wildbad, Germany (68 %), and the lowest in provenance Konjuh Kladanj, Bosnia and Herzegovina (3.2 %). Provenance Herzogenbuchsee from Switzerland had the highest percentage of winter leaf retention (37.5 % of plants). The results can be used in choosing provenances that are resistant to low temperatures in zones of late spring and early autumn frost. Namen raziskave je bil določiti začetek, konec in trajanje fenoloških faz, stopnje škode, ki jo povzroči pozno pomladanska pozeba, in zimsko retencijo listja. Raziskava je bila opravljena na območju mednarodnega provenienčnega poskusa navadne bukve v Bosni in Hercegovini. Poskus obsega osem provenienc iz Bosne in Hercegovine, štiri iz Nemčije, tri iz Srbije, po dve iz Hrvaške, Romunije in Švice ter eno iz Madžarske. Leta 2019 so bile ocenjene fenologija listja, škoda na krošnjah zaradi pozno pomladanske pozebe in retencija listja. Pri večini provenienc se je olistanje začelo 17. aprila 2019. Škoda na celotni krošnji je najvišji delež dreves prizadela na provenienci BW Bad Wildba v Nemčiji (68 %), najmanjši delež pa na provenienci Konjuh Kladanj v Bosni in Hercegovini (3,2 %). Provenienca Herzogenbuchsee iz Švice je imela najvišji delež zimske retencije listja (37,5 % dreves). Rezultati so uporabni za izbiro provenienc, ki so odporne na nizke temperature na območjih pozno pomladanske in zgodnje jesenske pozebe.

Analizirali smo rast duglazije (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) in smreke (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) na produktivnem rastišču na Pečovniku pri Celju. Analizirane duglazije so bile nekoliko mlajše od smrek (67 proti 71 let) in so nekoliko bolje priraščale (4,57 mm proti 3,26 mm na leto). Podnebni odziv duglazije na produktivnem rastišču je bil zelo izrazit. Na debelinski prirastek so statistično značilno vplivale nadpovprečne temperature v februarju in marcu, ter nadpovprečne padavine v juliju. V primerjavi s smreko je podnebni odziv duglazije časovno stabilen in bistveno izrazitejši. Analiza značilnih let je pokazala, da so negativna značilna leta pri duglaziji vedno povezana z zelo hladnim vremenom v februarju in marcu, pozitivna pa z nadpovprečnimi temperaturami v istih dveh mesecih. Poletne padavine imajo pomembnejšo vlogo pri duglaziji le v zadnjih treh desetletjih, pred tem pa ne. To nakazuje, da na sicer zelo produktivnem rastišču nastaja potencialno pomanjkanje vode, kar lahko na dolgi rok, ob trendih podnebnih sprememb, vodi v sušni stres in slabšo rast duglazije. We analysed the growth of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco) and Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) at a productive site in Pečovnik near Celje. The analysed Douglas firs were slightly younger than spruces (67 vs 71 years) and grew slightly better (4.57 mm vs 3.26 mm per year). The climatic response of Douglas fir on the productive site was very pronounced. The radial increment was statistically significantly influenced by above-average temperatures in February and March and above-average precipitation in July. Compared to spruce, the climatic response of Douglas-fir is temporally stable and significantly more pronounced. Analysis of pointer years has shown that negative pointer years in Douglas-fir are always associated with very cold weather in February and March and positive years with above-average temperatures in the same two months. Summer precipitation has played a more important role in Douglas-fir only in the last three decades, but not before that. This suggests a potential lack of water in an otherwise very productive site that could lead to drought stress and poorer growth of Douglas-fir in the long term, given climate change trends.

Regression of conifers in European mixed old-growth mountain forests has been observed for a long period and studied from different aspects. Old-growth (OG) forests in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) have not experienced heavy air pollution and chronic overbrowsing that have affected many other European OG forests, while climatic and anthropogenic disturbances have been well documented. We analysed stand structure in the Janj OG forest, compared it with inventories of Lom and Perucica OG forests (BiH) and with earlier inventories of the same reserves. At present, OG forest Janj is characterized by a high growing stock (1215 m$^3$·ha$^{−1}$). This is due to good site quality, prevalence of conifers (84%) and dominant endogenous processes in recent decades. In all three OG forests, indicators of structural change exhibited progression of European beech over time. Historical evidence revealed the occurrence of warm summers and droughts followed by bark beetle outbreaks in the 1920s, 1940s and early 1950s, which in turn influenced a marked conifer decline. It seems likely that repeated canopy opening released waves of European beech regeneration. These stand structural changes have delayed the rejuvenation of conifers and can help explain the early observations of conifer decline.

In Europe the area of forested land is increasing, largely due to forest development on abandoned agricultural lands. We compared the structure and composition of woody species in young stands undergoing secondary succession and within gaps of late-successional (LS) forest in Haloze (Slovenia) to derive management options. In a subset of plots in succession, silvicultural measures were carried out in one half, while the other half was left untreated. The attributes of crop trees and their competitor trees were monitored over five years, and a study on the time investment of tending was conducted. We found lower tree density, a larger share of pioneer and shrub species, and a higher diversity of woody plants in succession compared to regeneration within LS forest gaps. Tending resulted in greater density of crop trees, their better social position, fewer competitor trees, and a larger diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) increment, while differences in crop tree stability and quality between tending and control were not confirmed. Our results indicated great structural complexity and species diversity in young successional forests. Their tending represents a cost efficient method of recovering the long-term commercial value and ecosystem services of forests, if applied less intensively than traditional tending of LS forest.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is one of the most important tree species in European forests. This study aims to determine whether there is inter-provenance variability in researched morphological traits in two international provenance tests of Scots pine in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We measured height, root collar diameter, and latest shoot length and counted branches on the latest branch whorl of Scots pine plants in two provenance tests. The provenance tests are located in Kupres and Žepče, in different climatic, edaphic, and orographic conditions. Kupres and Žepče contain 15 and 14 provenances, respectively, eleven of which are mutual to both sites. Descriptive statistics and analysis of variance showed differences among provenances in all investigated morphological traits. These differences were attributable to provenance test, provenance, and interaction between provenance test and provenance. The average values were higher in Žepče for all provenances and all studied traits. The Austria A1, Austria A2, Austria A3, and Poland P1 provenances showed the best growth in both tests, while the Italy I1 provenance showed good growth in Žepče but not in Kupres. Rdeči bor (Pinus sylvestris L.) je ena izmed najpomembnejših drevesnih vrst v Evropi. Pričujoča raziskava ugotavlja, ali med proveniencami, uporabljenimi v dveh provenienčnih testih rdečega bora v Bosni in Hercegovini, obstaja variabilnost preučevanih morfoloških lastnosti. Izmerili smo višino dreves, premer koreninskega vratu in dolžino terminalnega poganjka ter prešteli veje na najmlajšem vencu vej v dveh provenienčnih testih. Provenienčna testa sta locirana v Kupresu (15 provenienc) in Žepčah (14 provenienc) v različnih podnebnih, edafskih in orografskih razmerah. Obema provinenčnima testoma je skupnih 11 provenienc. Deskriptivna statistika in analiza variance kažeta na razlike med proveniencami pri vseh preučevanih morfoloških lastnostih, ki jih pripisujemo provenienčnim testom, proveniencam in interakciji med provenienčnim testom in provenienco. Povprečne vrednosti so bile za vse provenience in vse preučevane lastnosti višje v Žepčah. Provenience Avstrija A1, Avstrija A2, Avstrija A3 in Poljska P1 so v obeh testih izkazale najboljšo rast, medtem ko je bila izmerjena rast Italije I1 dobra v provenienčnem testu v Žepčah, ne pa tudi v Kupresu.

Drevesa so pomemben arhiv podatkov o preteklih dogodkih za rekonstrukcijo prostorske in časovne aktivnosti skalnih podorov, saj beležijo vplive skalnih podorov z anomalijami v rasti drevesnih branik ali prek vizualnih poškodb, vidnih na površju debel. V prispevku je predstavljena metodologija preučevanja skalnih podorov z analizo vidnih poškodb na deblu 52 dreves navadne bukve (Fagus sylvatica L.) na območju doline Trente v Sloveniji. Na podlagi analize smo ugotovili, da je povprečno število poškodb na posamezno drevo 7 ter da večinoma spadajo v kategorijo starih poškodb, kar kaže na manjšo aktivnost skalnih podorov v zadnjih letih. Povprečna povratna doba pojavljanja skalnih podorov je znašala 31,8 let le-ta pa se skrajša za 1,2 leta, če upoštevamo pogojno verjetnost vpliva, da skale lahko zgrešijo drevesa. Prostorsko pojavljanje skalnih podorov kaže na večjo aktivnost v osrednjem delu preučevanega pobočja. Trees represent an important archive that can be used to reconstruct the spatial and temporal patterns of rockfall events. Rockfall impacts can be recorded in the form of anomalies in tree rings and impact scars on the tree stem. In this paper we demonstrate the use of an approach based on counting scars for reconstructing the frequency and spatial pattern of past rockfalls. The approach was applied by counting the visible scars on the stem surface of 52 European beech trees (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the area of the Trenta Valley, Slovenia. The average number of impacts per trees was 7, and the impacts were mostly classified as old, indicating reduced rockfall activity in recent years. The average recurrence interval was 31.8 years, which was reduced by 1.2 years by the application of the conditional impact probability. The spatial pattern of rockfall impacts shows that rockfall activity is higher in the middle part of the studied slope.

The evolutionary relationships between extinct and extant lineages provide important insight into species’ response to environmental change. The grey wolf is among the few Holarctic large carnivores that survived the Late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, responding to that period’s profound environmental changes with loss of distinct lineages and phylogeographic shifts, and undergoing domestication. We reconstructed global genome-wide phylogeographic patterns in modern wolves, including previously underrepresented Siberian wolves, and assessed their evolutionary relationships with a previously genotyped wolf from Taimyr, Siberia, dated at 35 Kya. The inferred phylogeographic structure was affected by admixture with dogs, coyotes and golden jackals, stressing the importance of accounting for this process in phylogeographic studies. The Taimyr lineage was distinct from modern Siberian wolves and constituted a sister lineage of modern Eurasian wolves and domestic dogs, with an ambiguous position relative to North American wolves. We detected gene flow from the Taimyr lineage to Arctic dog breeds, but population clustering methods indicated closer similarity of the Taimyr wolf to modern wolves than dogs, implying complex post-divergence relationships among these lineages. Our study shows that introgression from ecologically diverse con-specific and con-generic populations was common in wolves’ evolutionary history, and could have facilitated their adaptation to environmental change.

Invasive alien species (IAS) require management to mitigate their impact on ecosystems. The success of management decisions often depends on whether they are socially acceptable and to what extent people are willing to be actively involved in an early warning and rapid response system (EWRR). We administered a nation-wide public poll to assess people’s knowledge on plant, insect and fungal IAS; their perception of IAS as an environmental problem; and their support for different IAS management measures. Most respondents (76%) knew the term IAS, and more than half (62%) provided a correct definition. Species with more media attention and those that are easily visible are more frequently identified correctly. Almost all respondents (97%) support an EWRR system; however, there is heterogeneity in terms of the types of actions people approve of. Non-lethal measures garner more support than lethal ones. Gender and previous knowledge also affect the level of agreement. The willingness-to-pay question largely confirmed this, as people were divided into four classes according to their preferences for either biological, mechanical or chemical measures to control IAS; completeness and location of removal; and having an EWRR established. Mechanical removal is the most preferred treatment in two of the four classes, and complete removal is preferred over partial removal in one of the four classes. Having an EWRR is consistently supported in all classes, and removal in urban areas is preferred over removal in forestland in only one class.

Research Highlights: Data of advanced-age provenance tests were reanalyzed applying a new approach, to directly estimate the growth of populations at their original sites under individually generated future climates. The results revealed the high resilience potential of fir species. Background and Objectives: The growth and survival of silver fir under future climatic scenarios are insufficiently investigated at the xeric limits. The selective signature of past climate determining the current and projected growth was investigated to analyze the prospects of adaptive silviculture and assisted transfer of silver fir populations, and the introduction of non-autochthonous species. Materials and Methods: Hargreaves’ climatic moisture deficit was selected to model height responses of adult populations. Climatic transfer distance was used to assess the relative drought stress of populations at the test site, relating these to the past conditions to which the populations had adapted. ClimateEU and ClimateWNA pathway RCP8.5 data served to determine individually past, current, and future moisture deficit conditions. Besides silver fir, other fir species from South Europe and the American Northwest were also tested. Results: Drought tolerance profiles explained the responses of transferred provenances and predicted their future performance and survival. Silver fir displayed significant within-species differentiation regarding drought stress response. Applying the assumed drought tolerance limit of 100 mm relative moisture deficit, most of the tested silver fir populations seem to survive their projected climate at their origin until the end of the century. Survival is likely also for transferred Balkan fir species and for grand fir populations, but not for the Mediterranean species. Conclusions: The projections are less dramatic than provided by usual inventory assessments, considering also the resilience of populations. The method fills the existing gap between experimentally determined adaptive response and the predictions needed for management decisions. It also underscores the unique potential of provenance tests.

The present study addresses the short-term effects of different harvest intensities under close-to-nature selective management on the upper soil layers in Slovenian and Bosnian Dinaric karst fir-beech forests. The different harvest intensities coincided with the single-tree and irregular shelterwood management, common in the region. The effect of harvesting intensity on the upper soil layers (Ol, Of, Ol and 0–10 cm mineral soil) was investigated by a repeated measurements experiment in Slovenia on 27 research plots in close-to nature managed forests. The properties of the upper layers (concentration of SOC and TN, C/N ratio, weights, BD and SOC stocks) were analyzed twice, before (2011) and after (2014) treatment of 50% and 100% harvest intensity in relation to the total standing growing stock of trees. As a control, we used no-treatment &lt, 20% harvesting intensity plots. To extend this experiment, we added three comparable plots from the Bosnian site: one in an old-growth forest with 0% harvest intensity and two in the managed forest with &lt, 20% harvest intensity. The results of the assessment of mean differences indicated a significant influence of harvesting intensity on the decrease in SOC, TN concentrations, weights and SOC stocks in the organic layers and the increase in BD and SOC stocks in the 0–10 cm mineral soil. The highest relative decreases in Ol, Of and Oh SOC stocks occurred in 50% (−10 and −38%) and 100% (−16 and −49%) harvest intensities. Negligible relative differences in both organic and 0–10 cm mineral layers were found for the &lt, 20% harvest intensity in the region. The change in forest light conditions resulting from differences in canopy openness as a function of applied harvest intensity explained the significant difference in the properties of the upper soil layers. The impact of the short-term losses in SOC stocks, in terms of overall soil productivity, may depend on the regeneration dynamics and melioration methods.

Animal-borne video and environmental collection systems (AVEDs) are powerful tools for researching the behaviour of elusive animals, such as brown bears (Ursus arctos), which allows scientists to safely record footage from the perspective of an animal. This study aimed to assess some merits and flaws associated with AVEDs by analysing 5177 video clips recorded with a GPS camera collar, between 03:00 – 06:30 and 18:00 – 21:00 each day, which was attached to a male brown bear on Javorniki in Slovenia. Video clips were categorised into predefined behaviour, food and habitat categories. The most frequently observed behaviour, food and habitat was ‘foraging’ (45% of clips), ‘insects’ (41% of clips) and ‘forest’ (63% of clips). Our findings generally agreed with those of similar studies however, due to the recording periods being restricted to dusk and dawn, our results did not represent the typical daily behaviour of bears. We concluded that, in its present state, the limitations facing this method make it more suitable for acquiring qualitative data rather than hard quantitative data. Until cameras can sustain continuous operation over longer periods of time and allow for night-time recording, AVEDs should be used as a source of qualitative data to accompany traditional methods of monitoring and to provide a visual channel between the scientific community and the public. Video posnetki narejeni s strani živali in GPS kamera ovratnice (AVED) predstavljajo močno orodje za raziskovanje vedenja izmuzljivih živali, kot je rjavi medved (Ursus arctos), kar znanstvenikom omogoča varno snemanje posnetkov z vidika živali. Cilj te raziskave je bil oceniti nekatere prednosti in pomanjkljivosti povezane z AVED-ji, z analizo 5177 video posnetkov, posnetih z ovratnikom kamere GPS, med 03:00 - 06:30 ter 18:00 - 21:00 uro vsak dan, ki je bil pritrjen na samca rjavega medved na Javornikih v Sloveniji. Video posnetki so bili razvrščeni v vnaprej določene kategorije vedenje, iskanje hrane in habitatni tipi. Najpogosteje opaženo vedenje, hrana in habitatni prostor so bili "iskanje hrane" (45 % posnetkov), "žuželke" (41 % posnetkov) ter "gozd" (63 % posnetkov). Naše ugotovitve so se na splošno ujemale z ugotovitvami podobnih raziskav ker pa so bila obdobja snemanja omejena na čas mraka in zore, naši rezultati niso predstavljali običajnega dnevnega vedenja medvedov. Ugotovili smo, da je, glede na trenutno stanje te metode in njenih omejitev, le-ta bolj primerna za pridobivanje kvalitativnih podatkov kot solidnih kvantitativnih podatkov. Dokler baterije ne bodo mogle neprekinjeno delovati dlje časa in bodo kamere uspešno lahko snemale tudi ponoči, je treba AVED uporabljati kot vir kvalitativnih podatkov, v kombinaciji z bolj uveljavljenimi metodami monitoringa živali. Hkrati lahko AVED zagotavlja vizualni kanal med znanstveno skupnostjo in javnostjo.

Debris flows can transport large amounts of material and therefore present a significant threat to infrastructure and human life. In this research, we used tree-ring width analyses to quantify the response of trees to three debris flow events in NW Slovenia (Javoršček, Srpenica) and W Slovenia (Nikova) for which we know the time of origin. We attempted to date these and similar tree responses in the past and compared the patterns between different tree species. Altogether, we sampled 147 trees across a range of tree species (Fagus sylvatica, Pinus sylvestris, Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus ornus, Acer pseudoplatanus, Picea abies, Juglans regia, Acer campestre, Tilia cordata and Ostrya carpinifolia), including reference trees that were outside the debris flow fan. For 91 trees, we constructed tree-ring chronologies and used pointer-year analysis to identify years that had abnormal growth. For the remaining trees (mostly Ostrya carpinifolia, Tilia cordata and Acer pseudoplatanus), we either could not accurately distinguish tree rings or two samples from a single tree showed significantly different growth patterns. The growth patterns of Fagus sylvatica and Picea abies following debris flow events showed a weak response at the Javoršček site and no clear responses at the other two sites. Tree species responded similarly at the same locations. Due to the lack of a clear response pattern, we were not able to reconstruct past debris flows. Drobirski tokovi s sposobnostjo prenašanja večjih količin materiala so nevarni za infrastrukturo in življenje ljudi. Z analizo širine lesnih branik smo v raziskavi poskušali prepoznati odziv dreves na vpliv treh drobirskih tokov v SZ Sloveniji (Srpenica, Javoršček) in Z Sloveniji (Nikova) z znanim časom nastanka, na podlagi spremembe širine branike datirati podobne drobirske tokove v preteklosti in primerjati odzive različnih drevesnih vrst. Na treh lokacijah smo vzorčili skupno 147 dreves različnih drevesnih vrst (Fagus sylvatica, Pinus sylvestris, Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus ornus, Acer pseudoplatanus, Picea abies, Juglans regia, Acer campestre, Tilia cordata in Ostrya carpinifolia), vključno z referenčnimi drevesi, ki niso bila izpostavljena delovanju dejavnika. Pri 91 drevesih smo uspešno izdelali drevesne kronologije in z uporabo metode značilnih let ugotovili leta, ki so pri posameznih drevesnih vrstah ter na posameznih lokacijah glede na širno branike kazala zelo različne trende rasti. Pri drugih drevesih vrstah (večinoma Ostrya carpinifolia, Tilia cordata in Acer pseudoplatanus) nam ni uspelo razbrati vseh branik, oz. sta bili po dve zaporedji širin branik istega drevesa različni. V analizi rasti za prvo leto po dogodku smo šibak odziv na vpliv drobirskih tokov zaznali na lokaciji pod Javorščkom, ne pa tudi v Srpenici in Nikovi. Različne drevesne vrste so se na istih lokacijah odzvale podobno. Ker smo zaznali odziv le na eni lokaciji, nismo mogli rekonstruirati drobirskih tokov po posameznih lokacijah v preteklosti.

Debris flows can transport large amounts of material and therefore present a significant threat to infrastructure and human life. In this research, we used tree-ring width analyses to quantify the response of trees to three debris flow events in NW Slovenia (Javoršček, Srpenica) and W Slovenia (Nikova) for which we know the time of origin. We attempted to date these and similar tree responses in the past and compared the patterns between different tree species. Altogether, we sampled 147 trees across a range of tree species (Fagus sylvatica, Pinus sylvestris, Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus ornus, Acer pseudoplatanus, Picea abies, Juglans regia, Acer campestre, Tilia cordata and Ostrya carpinifolia), including reference trees that were outside the debris flow fan. For 91 trees, we constructed tree-ring chronologies and used pointer-year analysis to identify years that had abnormal growth. For the remaining trees (mostly Ostrya carpinifolia, Tilia cordata and Acer pseudoplatanus), we either could not accurately distinguish tree rings or two samples from a single tree showed significantly different growth patterns. The growth patterns of Fagus sylvatica and Picea abies following debris flow events showed a weak response at the Javoršček site and no clear responses at the other two sites. Tree species responded similarly at the same locations. Due to the lack of a clear response pattern, we were not able to reconstruct past debris flows. Drobirski tokovi s sposobnostjo prenašanja večjih količin materiala so nevarni za infrastrukturo in življenje ljudi. Z analizo širine lesnih branik smo v raziskavi poskušali prepoznati odziv dreves na vpliv treh drobirskih tokov v SZ Sloveniji (Srpenica, Javoršček) in Z Sloveniji (Nikova) z znanim časom nastanka, na podlagi spremembe širine branike datirati podobne drobirske tokove v preteklosti in primerjati odzive različnih drevesnih vrst. Na treh lokacijah smo vzorčili skupno 147 dreves različnih drevesnih vrst (Fagus sylvatica, Pinus sylvestris, Fraxinus excelsior, Fraxinus ornus, Acer pseudoplatanus, Picea abies, Juglans regia, Acer campestre, Tilia cordata in Ostrya carpinifolia), vključno z referenčnimi drevesi, ki niso bila izpostavljena delovanju dejavnika. Pri 91 drevesih smo uspešno izdelali drevesne kronologije in z uporabo metode značilnih let ugotovili leta, ki so pri posameznih drevesnih vrstah ter na posameznih lokacijah glede na širno branike kazala zelo različne trende rasti. Pri drugih drevesih vrstah (večinoma Ostrya carpinifolia, Tilia cordata in Acer pseudoplatanus) nam ni uspelo razbrati vseh branik, oz. sta bili po dve zaporedji širin branik istega drevesa različni. V analizi rasti za prvo leto po dogodku smo šibak odziv na vpliv drobirskih tokov zaznali na lokaciji pod Javorščkom, ne pa tudi v Srpenici in Nikovi. Različne drevesne vrste so se na istih lokacijah odzvale podobno. Ker smo zaznali odziv le na eni lokaciji, nismo mogli rekonstruirati drobirskih tokov po posameznih lokacijah v preteklosti.

Reliable data and methods for assessing changes in wildlife population size over time are necessary for management and conservation. For most species, assessing abundance is an expensive and labor-intensive task that is not affordable on a frequent basis. We present a novel approach to reconstructing brown bear population dynamics in Slovenia in the period 1998-2019, based on the combination of two CMR non-invasive genetic estimates (in 2007 and 2015) and long-term mortality records, to show how the latter can help the study of population dynamics in combination with point-in-time estimates. The spring (i.e. including newborn cubs) population size estimate was 383 (CI: 336-432) bears in 1998 and 971 (CI: 825-1161) bears in 2019. In this period, the average annual population growth rate was 4.5 %. The predicted population size differed by just 7 % from the non-invasive genetic size estimate after eight years, suggesting that the method is reliable. It can predict the evolution of the population size under different management scenarios and provide information on key parameters, e.g. background mortality and the sex- and age-structure of the population. Our approach can be used for several other wildlife species, but it requires reliable mortality data over time. Za upravljanje in ohranjanje populacij prostoživečih živali so potrebni zanesljivi podatki in metode za ocenjevanje njihove številčnosti. Ugotavljanje številčnosti je pri večini vrst drago in zahtevno, zato ga ni mogoče pogosto izvajati. V članku predstavljamo nov pristop, ki smo ga pripravili na primeru rekonstrukcije populacijske dinamike rjavega medveda v Sloveniji v obdobju 1998-2019. Pristop temelji na kombinaciji dveh ocen njegove številčnosti z neinvazivnimi genetskimi metodami (v letih 2007 in 2015) in dolgoletnega niza podatkov monitoringa smrtnosti. Ocena 'pomladanske' (t.j. največje letne - po poleganju mladičev) številčnosti rjavega medveda v Sloveniji za leto 1998 znaša 383 (CI: 336-432), za leto 2019 pa 971 osebkov (CI: 825-1161). Povprečna letna stopnja rasti populacije je bila v tem obdobju 4,5 %. Modelno ocenjena številčnost populacije se je od ugotovljene z genetsko metodo po osmih letih razlikovala le za 7 %, kar nakazuje, da je pristop zanesljiv oz. so njegovi rezultati za upravljavske namene dovolj kakovostni. Pristop omogoča tudi napovedovanje prihodnje populacijske dinamike pri različnih scenarijih upravljanja in okvirno ocenjevanje ključnih populacijskih parametrov, kot so spolna in starostna sestava, relativna rodnost in naravna smrtnost populacije. Pristop je uporaben tudi za več drugih populacij in živalskih vrst, vendar so zanj potrebni zanesljivi dolgoletni podatki o smrtnosti.

Conversion from age-class forestry to close-to-nature forest management calls for new ways to describe and communicate long-term goals for stand development with forest owners, workers and managers, as well as stakeholders. Further, it is crucial to integrate goals and methods of close-to-nature forestry into education and training. In Denmark, Forest Development Types (FDT), illustrated by use of profile diagrams, has proved a useful concept forcommunicating such "novel" long-term goals thus being instrumental in facilitating and supporting dialogue and participation in planning processes. The concept has already been applied to 120,000 ha of state owned forests and used by the municipality of Aarhus - Denmark's second largest city - as part of a participatory planning process in agreeing upon long-term goals for 1,800ha of forest in and adjacent to the city. Further, the concept of forest development types is used as a planning and design tool for forest landscape restoration in teaching at the international master course "Urban Woodland Design and Management" at the University of Copenhagen. Drawing upon experiences gained from these actions, the paper describes and discusses the concept of Forest Development Types as a tool easing social learning between research and practice, promoting public involvement, and facilitating professional learning around close-to-nature forest management at the university level. Prevzgoja enomernih sestojev umetnega nastanka v sonaravne gospodarske gozdovezahteva nove načine opisovanja in komuniciranja dolgoročnih gozdnogojitvenih ciljev tako za načrtovalce, gozdne delavce, lastnike gozdov kot tudi za druge deležnike. Prav tako je pomembno vpeljati cilje in metode sonaravnega gospodarjenja v izobraževanje in usposabljanje. Na Danskem so v tanamen uporabili razvojne tipe gozda (Forest Developmental Types - FDT), ki so nazorno prikazani z opisi in ilustracijami vertikalnih profilov. Izkazali so se kot zelo koristni za komuniciranje "novih" dolgoročnih ciljev gojenja gozdov kot tudi za podporo dialogu in participaciji deležnikov v procesu načrtovanja. Omenjeni način dela so že uporabili na površini 120.000 ha državnih gozdov v mestni občini Aarhus (drugo največje mesto na Danskem) kot del participativnega načrtovanja. Prispeval je k dogovoru o dolgoročnih gozdnogojitvenih ciljih za 1.800 ha mestnih in primestnih gozdov. Prav tako sorazvojne tipe gozda uporabili kot orodje za načrtovanje gozdne krajine v sklopu mednarodnega magistrskega študija "Urban Woodland Design and Management" na Univerzi v Kopenhagnu. Članek predstavlja uporabo razvojnih tipov gozda v participativnem načrtovanju, praksi in vseživljenjskem učenju deležnikov upravljanja z gozdovi ter za povezovanje znanosti in prakse. Poudarja prednosti in slabosti razvojnih tipov gozda, ki so jih nakazale dosedanje praktične izkušnje.

Fourteen local tree-ring chronologies of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) from different sites in Slovenia, elevations 300-1,415 m a.s.l., were constructed. Basic statistics of the chronologies (raw, standard and residual), climatic influence on tree growth, and growth variability among the sites are presented in the article. Dendroclimatological analysis showed that summer (particularly June) temperatures have negative and precipitation positive effect on tree-ring widths of beech on eleven sites in central, SE and SW Slovenia. The beech from highly elevated site in the Julian Alps above Tolmin (elevation 1200-1,450 m) showed positive response to summer temperatures. The whole variability in studied beech chronologies can be resumed in three sources of variation (principal components - PC): (PC_1) response of trees to June climate, (PC_2) altitude, and (PC_3) biogeographical differences.

Dothistroma needle blight (DNB), caused by Dothistroma septosporum and D. pini, and Brown spot needle blight, (BSNB), caused by Lecanosticta acicola, belong to the most harmful and important pine diseases today. DNB has been present in Southeastern Europe since the 1950s and BSNB since the 1970s. Recent outbreaks of BSNB and the fact that DNB is widely spread, made it necessary to study the population structure of these disease agents by measuring their genetic variety in phylogenetic, mating type gene and microsatellite marker analyses. In addition, the diversity of certain morphological traits was determined and migration patterns evaluated through use of coalescent-based method. Populations from Slovenia, Serbia and Croatia, obtained from Pinus nigra, P. mugo and P. halepensis, were selected for the study and compared with populations from Europe (EU), North America (NA), Central America (CA), South America (SA), Africa (AF) and Australia (AU). Serbian and most of Slovenian D. septosporum isolates grouped in phylogenetic analyses based on elongation factor (EF1-α) and β-tubulin-2 (βT2) together with the isolates from EU and NA, while Celje (Slovenia) formed a so far unrecognized new EF1-α haplotype. Croatian D. septosporum isolates also formed a new EF1-α haplotype and a separate clade, while they grouped with isolates from NA, CA, SA, AU and AF in the βT2 gene region analysis. ITS analysis was uninformative. In population structure analyses, most of Slovenian and Serbian populations composed a single genetic cluster, while populations from Trenta (Slovenia) and Kožino (Croatia) formed separate clusters. Migration analyses showed that gene flow occurs between populations from Slovenia and Serbia. Slovenian D. pini isolates and isolates from SA have identical ITS, EF1-α in βT2 sequences. In population structure analyses, D. pini isolates displayed clonality and low genetic diversity, likely as a consequence of a single event introduction. L. acicola phylogenetic analysis revealed a novel EF1-α haplotype in Croatian population and showed that Slovenian and Croatian isolates share a common ancestry with individuals from Central and Northern Europe. Population structure analysis revealed four distinct genetic clusters, generally corresponding to their respective geographic location and hosts. Observed unequal ratio of mating types and low overall genetic diversity in the population indicates that L. acicola predominantly reproduces asexually. Low genetic variation within each of the four clusters and absence of or low gene flow suggests that the different L. acicola populations were independently introduced. Rdeča pegavost borovih iglic, ki jo povzročata glivi Dothistroma septosporum in D. pini ter rjava pegavost borovih iglic, ki jo povzroča gliva Lecanosticta acicola, sta dve izmed pomembnejših bolezni borov. Rdeča pegavost borovih iglic je v jugovzhodni Evropi prisotna od leta 1950, rjava pegavost od leta 1970, obe bolezni se v zadnjih letih razširjata po Evropi in širše. Na osnovi filogenetskih analiz treh genskih regij, analize mikrosatelitnih markerjev, ugotavljanja načina razmnoževanja ter na osnovi izbranih morfoloških lastnosti smo ugotavljali strukturo populacij, genetsko raznolikost ter vzorce migracij populacij D. septosporum, D. pini in L. acicola. Izbrane populacije iz Slovenije, Srbije in Hrvaške, pridobljene iz Pinus nigra, P. mugo in P. halepensis, so bile primerjane s izolati iz Evrope (EU), Severne Amerike (SA), Centralne Amerike (CA), Južne Amerike (JA), Afrike (AF) in Avstralije (AU). V filogenetskih analizah elongacijskega faktorja 1-α (EF1-α) in β-tubulina-2 (βT2) se srbski in večina slovenskih izolatov D. septosporum združujejo z izolatiiz EU in SA, medtem ko izolati D. septosporum iz Celja (Slovenija) predstavljajo doslej neznani EF1-α haplotip. Hrvaški izolati D. septosporum so ravno tako predstavljali novi haplotip EF1-α in ločeno skupino, so se pa v analizi genske regij βT2 združili z izolati iz SA, CA, JA, AU in AF. ITS analiza je bila neinformativna. Populacijske in migracijske analize so pokazale, da se večina preučevanih slovenskih in srbskih D. septosporum populacij uvršča v isto genetsko gručo, medtem ko se populacije iz Trente (Slovenija) in Kožina (Hrvaška) grupirajo posebej. Slovenski D. pini izolati in izolati iz SA so imeli enake ITS, EF1-α in βT2 sekvence. V populacijskih analizah so vsi izolati D. pini pokazali klonalnost, nizko genetsko pestrost, kar nakazuje na vnos iz enega vira. Hrvaška populacija glive L. acicola vsebuje EF1-α haplotip, ki ni opisan v drugih populacijah L. acicola. Filogenetska analiza na osnovi regije EF1-α pokaže, da imajo izolati L. acicola iz Slovenije in Hrvaške skupne prednike z izolati iz srednje in severne Evrope. Analiza populacijske strukture slovenskih in hrvaških populacij L. acicola je razkrila štiri različne genetske gruče, ki praviloma odražajo geografsko lokacijo in gostitelje. Opaženo neenakomerno razmerje tipov parjenja, nizko število haplotipov in nizka splošna genetska raznolikost v populaciji nakazujejo na močan vpliv nespolnega razmnoževanja. Nizka genetska variabilnost znotraj vsakega od štirih grozdov in odsotnost oziroma nizek genski pretok nakazujeta na to, da so različne L. acicola populacije bile vnesene neodvisno.

An inventory of tree microhabitats was done in two unmanaged forests (Kobile and Ravna gora forest reserves) and one managed beech forest in SE Slovenia. The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of forest management, natural disturbances, and tree characteristics on microhabitat patterns. Forest structure and microhabitats were recorded in systematically placed plots (500 m2 in size) across each area. In total, we inventoried 849 trees on 54 plots and 1833 tree microhabitats. The results showed that forest management had no significant influence on the abundance of microhabitats per tree, but there were differences regarding microhabitat type between managed and unmanaged sites. There were substantially more microhabitats related to standing dead and live habitat trees in unmanaged forest (e.g. woodpecker cavities, insect galleries and bore holes, branch holes, dead branches and fruiting bodies of fungi), whereas in managed forests there were more tree microhabitats related to management (e.g. exposed heartwood, coarse bark, and epiphytic plants). The results also indicate that disturbance, tree diameter, vitality, and species influence the density, diversity, and occurrence of tree microhabitats. V bukovih gozdovih na območju Gorjancev (JV Slovenija) je bil jeseni 2014 opravljen popis drevesnih mikrohabitatov (DM). Skupno 54 ploskev velikosti 500 m2 je bilo sistematično postavljenih na treh raziskovalnih območjih (v pragozdnem rezervatu Ravna gora in gozdnem rezervatu Kobile ter v bližnjem gospodarskem gozdu). Zabeležili smo 1833 drevesnih mikrohabitatov na 849 drevesih. Namen študije je bil ugotoviti, kako gospodarjenje, naravne motnje ter sestojne značilnosti vplivajo na pojav DM. Podatke smo analizirali s programoma Excel in SPSS z neparametričnimi metodami. Ugotovili smo, da način gospodarjenja ne vpliva značilno na številčnost DM na drevo, vpliva pa na vrsto DM. V obeh rezervatih je bilo zabeleženih več DM, povezanih z odmrlimi in starimi drevesi (dupla ptic, izletne odprtine in rovi podlubnikov ter žuželk, vejne votline, večje odmrle veje in trosnjaki gliv), v gospodarskem gozdu pa več DM, povezanih z gospodarjenjem (izpostavljena beljava, razbrazdana skorja in epifiti). Prav tako smo ugotovili, da na gostoto, raznolikost in pojav DM vplivajo tudi naravne motnje, premer in stanje drevesa ter drevesna vrsta.