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Using feedback-free estimates of the warming by increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and observed rates of increase, we estimate that if the United States (U.S.) eliminated net CO2 emissions by the year 2050, this would avert a warming of 0.0084 C (0.015 F), which is below our ability to accurately measure. If the entire world forced net zero CO2 emissions by the year 2050, a warming of only 0.070 C (0.13 F) would be averted. If one assumes that the warming is a factor of 4 larger because of positive feedbacks, as asserted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the warming averted by a net zero U.S. policy would still be very small, 0.034 C (0.061 F). For worldwide net zero emissions by 2050 and the 4-times larger IPCC climate sensitivity, the averted warming would be 0.28 C (0.50 F).

Greenhouse gases, most importantly water vapor, increase the emissivity and decrease the albedo of clouds for thermal radiation. The modifications, which can be of order 10% for optically thick clouds, depend on the attenuation coefficient $\alpha^{\{g\}}$ of the greenhouse gases, and also on the attenuation coefficient, $\alpha^{\{c\}}$, the single-scattering albedo $\tilde \omega^{\{c\}}$, and the scattering phase function $p^{\{c\}}(\mu,\mu')$ of the cloud particulates. Cold, high-altitude clouds with low partial pressures of water vapor have smaller emissivities for thermal radiation and larger albedos than otherwise identical but warmer low-altitude clouds with higher partial pressures of water vapor. In $2n$-stream scattering theory, these phenomena can be quantified with the intensity emissivities $\varepsilon_{i}$ of the streams $i=1,2,3,\ldots, 2n$, and with upward or downward flux emissivities, $\varepsilon_{\bf u}$ and $\varepsilon_{\bf d}$. The emissivities are the ratios of the outgoing thermal intensities or fluxes to those of a reference black cloud. Emission from optically-thick, isothermal clouds with scattering, as well as absorption and emission, is limb darkened. Intensity emissivities $\varepsilon_i$ for streams that are nearly normal to the cloud surface are larger than those of more nearly horizontal streams. The limb darkening increases with increasing values of the single scattering albedo $\tilde \omega$. For fixed values of $\tilde\omega$, the onset of limb darkening with increasing zenith angle is more abrupt for phase functions with more forward scattering. Black clouds, which have only absorption and emission but no scattering, have unit (Lambertian) emissivities, $\varepsilon_i = 1$, for all stream directions.

For 2n-stream radiation transfer theory, a stack of m clouds can be represented as an equivalent cloud. Individual clouds, indexed by c = 1, 2, 3, ..., m are characterized by 2n x 2n scattering matrices S^{c}, that describe how the cloud interacts with 2n streams of axially symmetric incoming radiation, propagating in upward and downward Gauss-Legendre sample directions. Some of the radiation is transmitted, some is absorbed and converted to heat and some is scattered into 2n outgoing streams along the directions of the incoming streams. The clouds are also characterized by 2n x 1 thermal source vectors |J^dot^{c}} that describe the thermal emission of radiation along the stream directions by cloud particulates and gas molecules. The 2n x 2n scattering matrix of the equivalent cloud, S^{ev} = S^{m}*S^{m-1} *...*S^{2}*S^{1}, is the Redheffer star product of the scattering matrices S^{c} of the individual clouds. The 2n x 1 thermal source vector for the equivalent cloud |J^dot^{ev}}=G^[m,m}|J^dot^{m}} + G^[m,m-1}|J^dot^{m,m-1}} + ... + G^[m,1}|J^dot^{1}} is a linear combination of the thermal source vectors of the individual clouds. The 2n x 2n discrete Green's matrices G^[m,c} can be constructed from the scattering matrices S^{c} of individual clouds. The equivalent scattering matrix S^{ev} and the equivalent thermal source vector |J^dot}^{ev}} are analogous to the equivalent resistance and the equivalent electromotive force of Thevenin's theorem for a network of electrical circuits. Illustrative numerical examples are given for single clouds, 3-cloud stacks and 10-cloud stacks. These methods are useful for modeling radiation transfer in Earth's atmosphere, which can be represented by layers of invisible clouds, consisting of clear air and greenhouse gases, or visible clouds which also include condensed water, smog, etc.

The clear sky instantaneous radiative forcings of the 14 halogenated gases previously shown to have the largest contribution to global warming, were found. The calculation used the absorption cross sections for the halogenated gases which are assumed to be independent of temperature as well as over 1/3 million line strengths for the 5 naturally occurring greenhouse gases: H$_2$O, CO$_2$, O$_3$, CH$_4$ and N$_2$O, from the Hitran database. The total radiative forcing of the halogenated gases at their 2020 concentrations is 0.52 (0.67) W/m$^2$ at the tropopause (mesopause). Over half of this forcing is due to CFC11 and CFC12 whose concentrations are declining as a result of the Montreal Protocol. The rate of total forcing change for all 14 halogenated gases is 1.5 (2.2) mW/m$^2$/year at the tropopause (mesopause). The calculations assumed a constant altitude concentration for all halogenated gases except CFC11, CFC12 and SF$_6$. Using the observed altitude dependence for those 3 molecules reduced their radiative forcings by about 10%. The global warming potential values were comparable to those given by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The contribution of a gas to global warming was estimated using the forcing power per molecule defined as the derivative of its radiative forcing with respect to its column density. For the present atmosphere, the per-molecule forcing powers of halogenated gases are orders of magnitude larger than those for the 5 naturally occuring greenhouse gases because the latter have much higher concentrations and are strongly saturated. But, the rates of concentration increase of the 5 main greenhouse gases are orders of magnitude greater than that of any halogenated gas. Assuming the temperature increase caused by each gas is proportional to its radiative forcing increase, the 14 halogenated gases are responsible for only 2% of the total global warming., Comment: arXiv admin note: text overlap with arXiv:2103.16465, arXiv:2006.03098

The effect of changing greenhouse gas concentrations on climate was examined. Calculations of the climate sensitivity, the warming of the Earth due to a doubling of atmospheric CO2, are discussed. Ontario was responsible for 0.35% of the world's CO2 emissions in 2019 and this amount was 20% lower than in 2005. The predictions of Global Climate Models (GCM) were compared to observations. Records since 1880 show an overall warming of about 1 C. The GCMs do not account for observed decadal temperature fluctuations and consistently overestimate the warming. Ontario's contribution to global warming is only 9.2 x 10^{-5} C/year using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change recommended climate sensitivity value. Measurements of the polar ice caps reveal a decrease in the minimum September Arctic sea ice extent during 1979-2022 but the trend levelled off after 2007; while the average Antarctic sea ice extent slightly increased. Sea level increased slightly throughout the 20th century. Ontario's contribution to anthropogenic sea level rise is about 0.005 mm/year. Sea level along Ontario's Hudson Bay coast is decreasing due to isostatic rebound of the land following the last Ice Age. The change to ocean acidity due to CO2 absorption from the atmosphere is negligible compared to that due to tides, ocean depth and seasonal effects. Ontario's contribution to ocean acidification is estimated to be 6 x 10^{-6} pH/year. No changes in precipitation in North America over the 19th and 20th centuries, nor at Toronto since 1843, were found. The Great Lake levels are remarkably constant over the past century showing no evidence of a change in the incidence of flooding. No evidence was found that the frequency of extreme events such as hurricanes or tornadoes increased during recent decades. The number of forest fires in Canada and Ontario decreased during 1990 to 2020.

We discuss how greenhouse gases affect radiation transfer in Earth's atmosphere. We explain how greenhouse gases like water vapor or carbon dioxide, differ from non-greenhouse gases like nitrogen or oxygen. Using simple thermodynamics and fluid mechanics, we show that a planet with sufficiently high concentrations of greenhouse gases must develop a convecting troposphere. The planet must also develop a non-convecting stratosphere above the tropopause. In the simplest approximation of an atmosphere that is transparent to sunlight and has frequency-independent opacity for thermal radiation, one can find simple formulas for the tropopause altitude, and for the altitude profiles of pressure and temperature. The troposphere is nearly isentropic and the stratosphere is nearly isothermal. Earth's real atmosphere is much more complicated but it does have a troposphere and a stratosphere. Between the surface and the tropopause the entropy per kilogram of real tropospheric air increases slowly with altitude. The entropy increases much more rapidly with altitude in the stratosphere. The stratosphere has a nearly isothermal lower part and a hotter upper part due to absorption of solar ultraviolet radiation by ozone. The thermal opacity of the real atmosphere has a complicated frequency dependence due to the hundreds of thousands of vibration-rotation transitions of its greenhouse molecules. Unlike the simple model where nearly all radiation to space originates at the tropopause altitude, radiation to space from Earth's real atmosphere originates from both the surface and all altitudes in the troposphere. A small additional amount of radiation originates in the stratosphere. When these complications are taken into account, model calculations of the thermal radiation spectrum at the top of the atmosphere can hardly be distinguished from satellite observations.

We analyze thermal emission of radiation in homogeneous clouds. The clouds have negligible horizontal variation, but the temperature can vary vertically. The radiation at optical depth $\tau$ above the cloud bottom is characterized by intensity values $I(\mu_i,\tau)$ at $2n$ Gauss-Legendre direction cosines $\mu_i$, the roots of the $2n$th Legendre polynomial, $P_{2n}(\mu_i)=0$. Scattering matrices describe the intensity fraction with incoming direction cosine $\mu_{i'}$ that is scattered to intensity with outgoing direction cosine $\mu_{i}$. Green's-function matrices describe radiation generated by infinitesimally thin layers of cloud particulates, thermally emitting at the source optical depth $\tau'$. For thin isothermal clouds of optical thickness $\tau_c\le1$, thermal emission is mainly determined by the single scattering albedo $\tilde \omega$. The emitted intensity is limb brightened and depends little on the scattering phase function. For optically thick isothermal clouds, with $\tau_c \gg 1$, purely absorbing clouds with $\tilde\omega = 0$ become perfect blackbodies and emit isotropic Planck intensity. Thick isothermal clouds with moderate single scattering albedos emit substantially less thermal radiation than black bodies and the emission depends strongly on the anisotropy of the scattering phase function. Clouds with strong forward scattering are ``blackest" and emit the most thermal radiation. There is limb darkening which is most pronounced for strongly forward-scattering phase functions. The limb darkening in thick, isothermal, scattering clouds is not due to temperature gradients, as it is for the Sun. With scattering, nearly vertical radiation produced by thermal emission escapes through the surface more efficiently than nearly horizontal radiation. There is limb darkening even for purely absorbing particulates for clouds with hot interiors.

Higher concentrations of atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O) are expected to slightly warm Earth's surface because of increases in radiative forcing. Radiative forcing is the difference in the net upward thermal radiation flux from the Earth through a transparent atmosphere and radiation through an otherwise identical atmosphere with greenhouse gases. Radiative forcing, normally measured in W/m^2, depends on latitude, longitude and altitude, but it is often quoted for the tropopause, about 11 km of altitude for temperate latitudes, or for the top of the atmosphere at around 90 km. For current concentrations of greenhouse gases, the radiative forcing per added N2O molecule is about 230 times larger than the forcing per added carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule. This is due to the heavy saturation of the absorption band of the relatively abundant greenhouse gas, CO2, compared to the much smaller saturation of the absorption bands of the trace greenhouse gas N2O. But the rate of increase of CO2 molecules, about 2.5 ppm/year (ppm = part per million by mole), is about 3000 times larger than the rate of increase of N2O molecules, which has held steady at around 0.00085 ppm/year since 1985. So, the contribution of nitrous oxide to the annual increase in forcing is 230/3000 or about 1/13 that of CO2. If the main greenhouse gases, CO2, CH4 and N2O have contributed about 0.1 C/decade of the warming observed over the past few decades, this would correspond to about 0.00064 K per year or 0.064 K per century of warming from N2O. Proposals to place harsh restrictions on nitrous oxide emissions because of warming fears are not justified by these facts. Restrictions would cause serious harm; for example, by jeopardizing world food supplies.

We show how to use matrix methods of quantum mechanics to efficiently and accurately calculate axially symmetric radiation transfer in clouds, with conservative scattering of arbitrary anisotropy. Analyses of conservative scattering, where the single scattering albedo is $\tilde\omega =1$ and no energy is exchanged between the radiation and scatterers, began with work by Schwarzschild, Milne, Eddington and others on radiative transfer in stars. There the scattering is isotropic or nearly so. It has been difficult to extend traditional methods to highly anisotropic scattering, like that of sunlight in Earth's clouds. The $2n$-stream method described here is a practical way to handle highly anisotropic, conservative scattering. The basic ideas of the $2n$-stream method are an extension of Wick's seminal work on transport of thermal neutrons by isotropic scattering to scattering with arbitrary anisotropy. How to do this for finite absorption and $\tilde\omega<1$ was described in our previous paper (arXiv:2205.09713v2). But those methods fail for conservative scattering, when $\tilde \omega = 1$. Here we show that minor modifications to the fundamental $2n$-scattering theory for $\tilde\omega <1$ make it suitable for $\tilde\omega = 1$.

We use 2n streams, where n is an integer, of axially symmetric radiation to solve the equation of transfer for a layered medium. This is a generalization of Schuster's classic 2 stream model. As is well known, using only the first 2n Legendre polynomials to describe the angular dependence of radiation reduces the equation of transfer to a first order differential equation in a space of 2n dimensions. It is convenient to characterize the radiation as 2n stream intensities propagating at zenith angles having cosines called the 2n Gauss-Legendre cosines defined to be solutions of equating the Legendre polynomial of degree 2n to zero. We show how to efficiently and accurately solve the equation of transfer with vector and matrix methods analogous to those used to solve Schroedinger's equation of quantum mechanics. To model strong forward scattering, like that of visible light by Earth's clouds, we have introduced a new family of phase functions. These give the maximum possible forward scattering p(p+1) for a phase function constructed from the first 2p Legendre polynomials, where p is an integer. We show illustrative examples of radiative-transfer phenomena calculated with this new method., Comment: 63 pages, 20 figures

The forcings due to changing concentrations of Earth's five most important, naturally occurring greenhouse gases, H$_2$O, CO$_2$, O$_3$, N$_2$O and CH$_4$ as well as CF$_4$ and SF$_6$ were evaluated for the case of a cloud-free atmosphere. The calculation used over 1.5 million lines having strengths as low as $10^{-27}$ cm. For a hypothetical, optically thin atmosphere, where there is negligible saturation of the absorption bands, or interference of one type of greenhouse gas with others, the per-molecule forcings are of order $10^{-22}$ Watts for H$_2$O, CO$_2$, O$_3$, N$_2$O and CH$_4$ and of order $10^{-21}$ Watts for CF$_4$ and SF$_6$. For current atmospheric concentrations, the per-molecule forcings of the abundant greenhouse gases H$_2$O and CO$_2$ are suppressed by four orders of magnitude. The forcings of the less abundant greenhouse gases, O$_3$, N$_2$O and CH$_4$, are also suppressed, but much less so. For CF$_4$ and SF$_6$, the suppression is less than an order of magnitude because the concentrations of these gases is very low. For current concentrations, the per-molecule forcings are two to four orders of magnitude greater for O$_3$, N$_2$O, CH$_4$, CF$_4$ and SF$_6$ than those of H$_2$O or CO$_2$. Doubling the current concentrations of CO$_2$, N$_2$O or CH$_4$ increases the forcings by a few per cent. A concentration increase of either CF$_4$ or SF$_6$ by a factor of 100 yields a forcing nearly an order of magnitude smaller than that obtained by doubling CO$_2$. Important insight was obtained using a harmonic oscillator model to estimate the power radiated per molecule. Unlike the most intense bands of the 5 naturally occurring greenhouse gases, the frequency-integrated cross sections of CF$_4$ and SF$_6$ were found to noticeably depend on temperature., Comment: 29 pages, 10 figures. arXiv admin note: substantial text overlap with arXiv:2006.03098

The atmospheric temperatures and concentrations of Earth's five most important, greenhouse gases, H$_2$O, CO$_2$, O$_3$, N$_2$O and CH$_4$ control the cloud-free, thermal radiative flux from the Earth to outer space. Over 1/3 million lines having strengths as low as $10^{-27}$ cm of the HITRAN database were used to evaluate the dependence of the forcing on the gas concentrations. For a hypothetical, optically thin atmosphere, where there is negligible saturation of the absorption bands, or interference of one type of greenhouse gas with others, the per-molecule forcings are of order $10^{-22}$ W for H$_2$O, CO$_2$, O$_3$, N$_2$O and CH$_4$. For current atmospheric concentrations, the per-molecule forcings of the abundant greenhouse gases H$_2$O and CO$_2$ are suppressed by four orders of magnitude. The forcings of the less abundant greenhouse gases, O$_3$, N$_2$O and CH$_4$, are also suppressed, but much less so. For current concentrations, the per-molecule forcings are two to three orders of magnitude greater for O$_3$, N$_2$O and CH$_4$, than those of H$_2$O or CO$_2$. Doubling the current concentrations of CO$_2$, N$_2$O or CH$_4$ increases the forcings by a few per cent. These forcing results are close to previously published values even though the calculations did not utilize either a CO$_2$ or H$_2$O continuum. The change in surface temperature due to CO$_2$ doubling is estimated taking into account radiative-convective equilibrium of the atmosphere as well as water feedback for the cases of fixed absolute and relative humidities as well as the effect of using a pseudoadiabatic lapse rate to model the troposphere temperature. Satellite spectral measurements at various latitudes are in excellent quantitative agreement with modelled intensities., Comment: This manuscript has 38 pages containing 15 figures