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External characteristics of the eggs and the ultrastructure of wax-secreting pores and sensory pits of all five nymphal stages and the adults of the planthopper Euricania clara Kato, 1932 are described and illustrated using both light and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A key to five nymphal instars of Euricania clara is provided. The structure of stomata-like wax pores on different parts of the adult body and the distribution of nymphal sensory pits and wax plates are described and compared with 6 other species of Ricaniidae. This study shows that ultrastructural features on the egg surface vary among species of Ricaniidae. The patterns of wax-pore plates and pits on abdominal segment 6 can be used to distinguish two allied genera, Pochazia and Ricania. Wax-secreting plates on the ventral surface of the anal tube of the female adult can be used to distinguish the genus Euricania from Pochazia and Ricania. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Orchids offer a variety of floral rewards to pollinators. In many orchid groups, however, the transfer of pollen is based on food-deception, as in the case of Laelia (including Schomburgkia s.s.), a genus assigned to the Neotropical subtribe Laeliinae. Here, we report on the reproductive biology of a Brazilian member of this subtribe, namely, Laelia gloriosa, occurring in the forested areas of southeastern Brazil. The study includes analyses of floral morphology, histochemistry, and the chemical analysis of floral rewards and scents. Pollinators and pollination mechanism data were collected in the field by means of focal observations. Analyses of breeding systems and the percentage of potentially viable seed were also recorded. The floral morphology of Laelia gloriosa indicates that this species is melittophilous. The flowers release a citrus-like fragrance that attracts many species of bee. The flowers offer waxy material as a reward, and this is collected exclusively by Meliponini bees. Several bee species visit the flowers. However, those of L. gloriosa are pollinated exclusively by Trigona spinipes. Pollinaria are deposited on the bee's scutellum. Plants of the studied population were entirely self-compatible, but pollinator-dependent. The frequency of visits to these flowers was greater than in rewardless Laeliinae. Our study provides the first evidence of lipoidal substances as a resource in Laeliinae. The discovery that an orchid species (Laelia gloriosa) of this subtribe, hitherto considered to be entirely pollinated by nectar-seeking pollinators, offers a floral waxy material and provides new insights into the evolution of this important subtribe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Given the significant role of retention in the long‐term success of implant‐supported prostheses, this study aimed to compare the retentive strength of three‐unit implant‐supported frameworks manufactured using the conventional, subtractive milling, and 3D printing methods. Materials and Methods: In this in vitro study, two fixture analogs were placed in the mandibular right first premolar and first molar region of a Dentiform model, and two prefabricated abutments were secured in the fixture analogs. A total of 27 three‐unit frameworks were fabricated utilizing wax patterns prepared through conventional, milling, and 3D printing techniques (n = 9 per group). The frameworks were cemented with zinc oxide eugenol and subjected to thermocycling. The retentive strength of each specimen was evaluated through a pull‐out test conducted with a universal testing machine. The data were analysed using one‐way ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc test (p < 0.05). Results: The three groups were found to be significantly different (p = 0.01). While the 3D printing and milling groups were not significantly different (p = 0.99), they yielded significantly higher retentive strength compare to the conventional group (p = 0.02 for 3D printing and p = 0.03 for milling group). Conclusion: The utilization of 3D printing and milling technique for wax pattern preparation significantly increased the retention of the implant‐supported framework, with no statistically significant difference between the two methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: The lenticel is a channel‐like structure that facilitates oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor exchange on secondary growth tissue, such as a tree stem. Although the structure of lenticel has been described, there is limited understanding regarding the impact of this secondary structure on secondary growth as well as the cellular and metabolic processes underlying its formation. The study reveals the essential role of the lenticel in the process of tree secondary growth and the cellular and metabolic processes that take place during its formation. Under the stomata, lenticel development occurs when cells divide and differentiate into a structure of disconnected cells with air spaces between them. During lenticel formation, specific metabolic pathways and wax biosynthesis are activated. The SERK (somatic embryogenesis receptor kinase) gene controls lenticel density, and serk1serk3serk5 triple mutants enhance lenticel initiation. The findings shed light on the cellular and metabolic processes involved in lenticel formation, laying the groundwork for further mechanistic elucidation of their development, function, and genetic regulation in trees. Significance Statement: The lenticel is a porous, channel‐like structure that forms during plant secondary growth. Despite the description of the general structure of lenticels, their impact on plant growth and the specific cellular and molecular processes involved in their development remain incompletely understood. The study elucidates the critical role of the lenticel in tree growth and delineates the cellular process and metabolic specialization involved in its development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The revelation of the internal structure of objects through computed tomography (CT scan) contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of their creation, the assessment of their preservation status, and the prediction of their future behavior. Consequently, in the case of Yiannis Pappas' collection, this knowledge aids in the perpetuation of the models it hosts, which are made from malleable materials, such as wax, plasticine, and mazut, on metallic armature. This publication presents the complete methodology for extracting three-dimensional (3D) models (reconstructions) of the individual construction materials of the figurines, with the aim of subsequently utilizing them in research, as well as in their digital preservation and restoration. The 3D reconstructions were obtained by automatic segmentation algorithms based on the absorption measurements of the materials of the specific figurines, and were furthered edited (post-processing) to obtain the final models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The revelation of the internal structure of objects through computed tomography (CT scan) contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of their creation, the assessment of their preservation status, and the prediction of their future behavior. Consequently, in the case of Yiannis Pappas’ collection, this knowledge aids in the perpetuation of the models it hosts, which are made from malleable materials, such as wax, plasticine, and mazut, on metallic armature. This publication presents the complete methodology for extracting three-dimensional (3D) models (reconstructions) of the individual construction materials of the figurines, with the aim of subsequently utilizing them in research, as well as in their digital preservation and restoration. The 3D reconstructions were obtained by automatic segmentation algorithms based on the absorption measurements of the materials of the specific figurines, and were furthered edited (post-processing) to obtain the final models.

Abstract [Objective] The study aims to explore the micromorphological characteristics of leaf epidermis of Idesia polycarpa Maxim. and investigate differences between the female and male plants in order to provide references for the mining and utilization of its germplasm resources. [Methods] The leaf epidermal micro-configurations of 40 plants of I. polycarpa (half female and half male) were characterized with scanning electron microscopy. 12 stomatal traits were measured and the similarities and differences among the samples were analyzed. [Results] (1) The leaf epidermal hair, cell morphology, stomatal characteristics, and wax pattern of both female and male I. polycarpa were similar. The dense, conical conicoid-like wax covered on the abaxial epidermis was rarely observed in other plants. (2) The leaf stomatal size (length, width, area, and perimeter) and density-related parameters of the female I. polycarpa were slightly higher than those of the male samples. On the contrary, leaf stomatal pore-related parameters (stomatal pore width, stomatal opening area, and stomatal opening level) were slightly higher in the male samples. But all differences were not statistically significant (P >0.05). (3) Most stomatal traits were significantly correlated with each other, while stomatal density was rarely related with others, which might be subject to relatively independent genetic regulation. [Conclusion] This study examined the characteristics of leaf epidermal micromorphology of I. polycarpa, and finded that the conical conicoid-like wax pattern could be used for germplasm evaluation, and the stomatal parameters were essential for gender determination of its young seedlings.

Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) is a polyphagous pest with a significant impact on grapevines. This study aimed to characterize the fatty acid composition of the protective wax secreted by M. hirsutus reared on grapevines and potato sprouts using gas chromatography-flame ionization detector. The wax samples from mealybugs and their egg masses revealed a diverse array of methyl esters and hydrocarbons. Key compounds consistently found across all samples included methyl undecanoate, myristoleic acid, gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and erucic acid. Unique to grapevine-reared specimens were methyl palmito-oleate, gondoic acid, eicosadienoic acid, and eicosatrienoic acid (methyl dihomolinolenate), while potato sprout-reared specimens contained methyl decanoate, methyl heptadecanoate, heptadecanoic acid, and octadecanoic acid. These findings indicate a complex and host-dependent profile of fatty acids in M. hirsutus wax, demonstrating the pest's biochemical adaptability. GLA emerged as a predominant component, crucial for protecting mealybugs and their eggs from desiccation, and has potential as a dietary source for humans. Methyl undecanoate likely enhances offspring survival through defence mechanisms. Oleic and gondoic acids suggest protective functions in the mealybug wax. Methyl decanoate has antimicrobial properties and suggests defence against microbial threats. Methyl heptadecanoate (margaric acid) plays a role in insect communication and defence, acting as both attractant and repellent. Methyl linoleic acid is essential for reproductive success through sex pheromone synthesis. Erucic acid, present in small amounts, is toxic to many animals and provides hydrophobic and lubrication properties. This detailed characterization of fatty acids enhances our understanding of M. hirsutus' adaptability and defence mechanisms, offering insights for potential pest control strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Olefin polymerization is one of the most important chemical reactions in industry. This work presents a strategy that emphasizes the synergistic meta/para-steric hindrance of N-aryl groups and electronic effects in newly synthesized neutral salicylaldiminato nickel catalysts. These nickel(II) catalysts exhibit exceptional thermostability, ranging from 30 °C to 130 °C, demonstrating enhanced catalytic activities and broadly regulated polyethylene molecular weights (3–341 kg·mol−1) and controlled polymer branch density (2–102 brs/1000C). The preferred catalyst Ni3 with concerted steric and electronic effects enables the production of solid-state semi-crystalline polyethylene materials at temperatures below 90 °C. Notably, Ni3 exhibits an impressive tolerance of 110 °C and can withstand even the challenging polymerization temperature of 130 °C, leading to the production of polyethylene wax and oil. Also, functionalized polyethylene is produced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of four modifiers were studied to compare their roles in the self-healing ability of asphalt binder: elemental sulfur, with a known plasticizing effect; wax, containing long alkane chains (>C50) with a known crystallizing capability; a plastic oil, with short alkane chains (

To understand the castor wax layer's multifaceted contribution to Amphobotrys ricini pathogenesis, the hydrophobic components of cuticular wax were analysed from waxy and non‐waxy castor genotypes. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) technology enabled the stable detection and quantitative determination of various fatty acids and terpenoids. The investigation revealed a significant presence of triterpenoid compound 'lupeol', accounting for approximately 53.6% of the wax composition in the waxy genotype (DCH‐519), which was absent in non‐waxy genotype (ICS‐324). On exposure to lupeol, about 93.3% of conidia germinated leading to rapid mycelium growth and sporulation of A. ricini. SEM analysis of waxy and non‐waxy genotypes infected with A. ricini confirmed faster germination and production of longer germ tubes on waxy genotype compared with non‐waxy genotype, which may likely due to early recognition of the suitable host in the presence of lupeol, ultimately aiding in speedy germination and growth of the pathogen setting pace for pathogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY: The cuticle, consisting of cuticular wax and cutin, is a lipid membrane that seals the plant surface against environmental stress. β‐Ketoacyl‐CoA synthases (KCSs) are condensing enzymes catalyzing crucial reactions elongating hydrocarbon chains into precursors for various cuticular wax components. Although many KCS genes were well characterized in various species, the functions of the closely related Arabidopsis KCS3, KCS12, KCS19 enzymes remained unclear. Here, we found KCS3 preferentially expressed in growing organs, especially in guard cells. kcs3 mutants and kcs3kcs12 double mutants displayed sepal fusion phenotypes, suggesting defects in cuticle formation. The mutants had decreased amounts of wax components with relatively short hydrocarbon chains in the developing organs but increased levels of wax compounds in mature organs. In contrast, kcs19 mutants showed seed fusion phenotypes and altered chain length distributions in seed suberin. Taken together, our results show that KCS12 and KCS3 share redundant functions in flower development, while KCS19 is involved in seed coat formation. All three condensing enzymes are involved in the elongation of C>18 hydrocarbon chains in young, actively expanding tissues. Significance Statement: KCS3 and KCS12 are redundant condensing enzymes elongating fatty acid precursors for surface waxes during early organ development, especially in guard cells, while the closely related KCS19 enzyme functions in fatty acid formation for seed coats. These findings underscore the local and developmental orchestration of the biochemical mechanisms forming the lipid coating that seals plant tissues against water loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Ideally, the barrier properties of a fruit’s cuticle persist throughout its development. This presents a challenge for strawberry fruit, with their rapid development and thin cuticles. The objective was to establish the developmental time course of cuticle deposition in strawberry fruit. Results Fruit mass and surface area increase rapidly, with peak growth rate coinciding with the onset of ripening. On a whole-fruit basis, the masses of cutin and wax increase but on a unit surface-area basis, they decrease. The decrease is associated with marked increases in elastic strain. The expressions of cuticle-associated genes involved in transcriptional regulation (FaSHN1, FaSHN2, FaSHN3), synthesis of cutin (FaLACS2, FaGPAT3) and wax (FaCER1, FaKCS10, FaKCR1), and those involved in transport of cutin monomers and wax constituents (FaABCG11, FaABCG32) decreased until maturity. The only exceptions were FaLACS6 and FaGPAT6 that are presumably involved in cutin synthesis, and FaCER1 involved in wax synthesis. This result was consistent across five strawberry cultivars. Strawberry cutin consists mainly of C16 and C18 monomers, plus minor amounts of C19, C20, C22 and C24 monomers, ω-hydroxy acids, dihydroxy acids, epoxy acids, primary alcohols, carboxylic acids and dicarboxylic acids. The most abundant monomer is 10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid. Waxes comprise mainly long-chain fatty acids C29 to C46, with smaller amounts of C16 to C28. Wax constituents are carboxylic acids, primary alcohols, alkanes, aldehydes, sterols and esters. Conclusion The downregulation of cuticle deposition during development accounts for the marked cuticular strain, for the associated microcracking, and for their high susceptibility to the disorders of water soaking and cracking.

Background: Ideally, the barrier properties of a fruit's cuticle persist throughout its development. This presents a challenge for strawberry fruit, with their rapid development and thin cuticles. The objective was to establish the developmental time course of cuticle deposition in strawberry fruit. Results: Fruit mass and surface area increase rapidly, with peak growth rate coinciding with the onset of ripening. On a whole-fruit basis, the masses of cutin and wax increase but on a unit surface-area basis, they decrease. The decrease is associated with marked increases in elastic strain. The expressions of cuticle-associated genes involved in transcriptional regulation (FaSHN1, FaSHN2, FaSHN3), synthesis of cutin (FaLACS2, FaGPAT3) and wax (FaCER1, FaKCS10, FaKCR1), and those involved in transport of cutin monomers and wax constituents (FaABCG11, FaABCG32) decreased until maturity. The only exceptions were FaLACS6 and FaGPAT6 that are presumably involved in cutin synthesis, and FaCER1 involved in wax synthesis. This result was consistent across five strawberry cultivars. Strawberry cutin consists mainly of C16 and C18 monomers, plus minor amounts of C19, C20, C22 and C24 monomers, ω-hydroxy acids, dihydroxy acids, epoxy acids, primary alcohols, carboxylic acids and dicarboxylic acids. The most abundant monomer is 10,16-dihydroxyhexadecanoic acid. Waxes comprise mainly long-chain fatty acids C29 to C46, with smaller amounts of C16 to C28. Wax constituents are carboxylic acids, primary alcohols, alkanes, aldehydes, sterols and esters. Conclusion: The downregulation of cuticle deposition during development accounts for the marked cuticular strain, for the associated microcracking, and for their high susceptibility to the disorders of water soaking and cracking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Honeybees are insects very sensitive to environmental pollution and at the same time very good indicators of the pollution levels for certain types of pollutants. The morphology and ethology of these insects make them perfect vectors for dust and substances, including heavy metals produced by anthropic activities or naturally generated and deposited on foraged flora. When bees are raised to produce foods such as honey and pollen, they can easily transfer pollutants collected from contaminated flower affecting the quality of these products. However, depending on geographical location of the apiaries and their distance from pollution sources, the risk to contaminate bee products can be higher or lower requiring deep investigations. In this study, two apiaries were built near ground transport infrastructures and used as monitoring stations for investigating heavy metal presence in beehive products such as bee wax, pollen, and honey. Another apiary was placed between these two locations at a distance of 500 m from each one and used as central node to asses possible diffusion trends. Parallel, air quality was monitored in the proximity of each apiary to verify the air pollution of the environments close to these sites. The results of the study suggest that the presence of the highway and the train station affected the levels of heavy metal presence in the apiary products. Air quality near apiaries was also negatively affected by ground transport, especially in proximity of the highway. Wax resulted significantly more polluted in the apiary close to train station with elements such as Al, Zn, and Ni, while honey and pollen were significantly more polluted in the proximity of the highway with elements such as Al, Fe, Cu, and Zn. Honey was the product suffering less the contamination by heavy metals while pollen was the worse. In conclusion, the presence of transportation nodes determined a higher accumulation of heavy metals in beehive products respect the apiary placed in between, suggesting to pay particular attention in the site selection for the placement of apiaries to protect both bees and human health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main goal of this research is the production of e-fuels in gasoline- and diesel-range hydrocarbons via the hydrocracking of wax from Fischer–Tropsch (FT-wax) synthesis. The hydrogen for the hydrocracking process originated from solar energy via water electrolysis, thus, the produced fuels were called e-fuels. The FT-wax was produced via the Fischer–Tropsch synthesis of syngas stream from the chemical looping gasification (CLG) of biogenic residues. For the hydrocracking tests, a continuous-operation TRL3 (Technology Readiness Level) pilot plant was utilized. At first, hydrocracking catalyst screening was performed for the upgrading of the FT-wax. Three hydrocracking catalysts were investigated (Ni-W, Ni-W zeolite-supported, and Ni-W Al2O3-supported catalyst) via various operating conditions to identify the optimal operating window for each one. These three catalysts were selected, as they are typical catalysts that are used in the petroleum refinery industry. The optimal catalyst was found to be the NiW catalyst, as it led to high e-fuel yields (38 wt% e-gasoline and 47 wt% e-diesel) with an average hydrogen consumption. The optimum operating window was found at a 603 K reactor temperature, 8.3 MPa system pressure, 1 hr−1 LHSV, and 2500 scfb H2/oil ratio. In the next phase, the production of 5 L of hydrocracked wax was performed utilizing the optimum NiW catalyst and the optimal operating parameters. The liquid product was further fractionated to separate the fractions of e-gasoline, e-diesel, and e-heavy fuel. The e-gasoline and e-diesel fractions were qualitatively assessed, indicating that they fulfilled almost all EN 228 and EN 590 for petroleum-based gasoline and diesel, respectively. Furthermore, a 12-month storage study showed that the product can be stored for a period of 4 months in ambient conditions. In general, green transportation e-fuels with favorable properties that met most of the fossil fuels specifications were produced successfully from the hydrocracking of FT-wax. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cuticle covering aerial organs of land plants is well known to protect against desiccation. Cuticles also play diverse and specialized functions, including organ separation, depending on plant and tissue. Barley shows a distinctive cuticular wax bloom enriched in β -diketones on leaf sheaths, stem nodes and internodes and inflorescences. Barley also develops a sticky surface on the outer pericarp layer of its grain fruit leading to strongly adhered hulls, 'covered grain', important for embryo protection and seed dispersal. While the transcription factor-encoding gene HvNUDUM (HvNUD) appears essential for adherent hulls, little is understood about how the pericarp cuticle changes during adhesion or whether changes in pericarp cuticles contribute to another phenotype where hulls partially shed, called 'skinning'. To that end, we screened barley lines for hull adhesion defects, focussing on the Eceriferum (= waxless, cer) mutants. Here, we show that the cer-xd allele causes defective wax blooms and compromised hull adhesion, and results from a mutation removing the last 10 amino acids of the GDS(L) [ Gly, Asp, Ser, (Leu)]-motif esterase/lipase HvGDSL1. We used severe and moderate HvGDSL1 alleles to show that complete HvGDSL1 function is essential for leaf blade cuticular integrity, wax bloom deposition over inflorescences and leaf sheaths and pericarp cuticular ridge formation. Expression data suggest that HvGDSL1 may regulate hull adhesion independently of HvNUD. We found high conservation of HvGDSL1 among barley germplasm, so variation in HvGDSL1 unlikely leads to grain skinning in cultivated barley. Taken together, we reveal a single locus which controls adaptive cuticular properties across different organs in barley. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wounding caused by insects or abiotic factors such as wind and hail can cause severe stress for plants. Intrigued by the observation that wounding induces expression of genes involved in surface wax synthesis in a jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile)-independent manner, the role of wax biosynthesis and respective genes upon wounding was investigated. Wax, a lipid-based barrier, protects plants both from environmental threats and from an uncontrolled loss of water. Its biosynthesis is described to be regulated by abscisic acid (ABA), whereas the main wound signal is the hormone JA-Ile. We show in this study that genes coding for enzymes of surface wax synthesis are induced upon wounding in Arabidopsis thaliana leaves in a JA-Ile-independent but an ABA-dependent manner. Furthermore, the ABA-dependent transcription factor MYB96 is a key regulator of wax biosynthesis upon wounding. On the metabolite level, wound-induced wax accumulation is strongly reduced in JA-Ile-deficient plants, but this induction is only slightly decreased in ABA-reduced plants. To further analyze the ABA-dependent wound response, we conducted wounding experiments in high humidity. They show that high humidity prevents the wound-induced wax accumulation in A. thaliana leaves. Together the data presented in this study show that wound-induced wax accumulation is JA-Ile-dependent on the metabolite level, but the expression of genes coding for enzymes of wax synthesis is regulated by ABA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asphaltene, the heaviest and most polar non-hydrocarbon component in crude oil, may interact with waxes and affect the flow and gelation behavior of waxy oils. To further study the effect of asphaltene on the flow and gelation behavior of waxy oils, five wax-containing simulated oils with small dosage asphaltene content were prepared. Through pour point and rheometer test, it is found that asphaltenes can improve the low-temperature rheology of waxy oil. There is no critical turning point above which the low-temperature flowability improved. With an increase in asphaltene content from 0 wt% to 0.1 wt%, notable changes were observed in the properties of the waxy oil. The pour point, which measures the temperature at which the oil becomes too viscous to flow freely, exhibited a decrease from 25 °C to 13 °C. Similarly, the gelation temperature, indicating the temperature at which the oil starts forming a gel-like consistency, also decreased from 29.0 °C to 27.1 °C. These modifications can be attributed to the presence of asphaltene in the oil sample. This outcome can be attributed to the interference caused by the presence of asphaltenes, which disrupts the gel network structure of the waxy oil and consequently hinders its gelation process. Simultaneously, within the low asphaltene content range, an increase in asphaltene content resulted in a considerable decrease in the viscosity of the waxy oil at 10 °C, reducing it from 531.5 mPa s to 14 mPa s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The initial brown coals, humic substances and their fractions obtained from them, as well as bitumen were characterized using technical and elemental analysis, Fourier infrared, 13C NMR spectroscopy. The component composition of the obtained bitumen and its fractions was studied using the chromatography-mass spectrometry method. It has been established that during the fractionation of humic substances, the main part of aromatic compounds is concentrated in humus acids. The data on the study of the phytostimulating activity of various fractions of humic substances and their mixtures with the saponified component of the resin of extraction bitumen, in relation to wheat seeds of the Aphrodite variety, are presented. A positive eff ect on the growth performance of the studied fractions of humic substances separately and when used together in a mixture with the saponified component of bitumen resin was shown. The phytoactivity index (PI) of the studied initial samples and their mixtures is in the range of 1.04–1.64. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Assessing the environmental quality of specific geographical areas, particularly those in proximity to industrial zones or the sites of waste-to-energy plant constructions, emerges as a critical concern in contemporary environmental science. The use of biological indicators, such as bees, represents a noninvasive methodology for environmental monitoring. By taking advantage of the extension of their foraging radius and evaluating the quality of the hive's products, it is possible to obtain an in-depth snapshot of the environmental state of the surrounding area. In the context of our study, the vicinity of the Acerra waste-to-energy plant was first evaluated using bees as bioindicators, thereby aiming to detect the potential presence of hazardous waste combustion byproducts. Following promising initial results, it was decided to look for additional pollutants (such as pesticides, metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) and establish a second apiary in the Caivano area to further affirm the bees' efficacy in pinpointing specific geographic zones impacted by anthropogenic activities. Research focusing on bees and apiary products underscored the heightened sensitivity of this bioindicator to various environmental pollutants, whose presence delineated the anthropogenic utilization of the studied area. In recent years, biomonitoring has gained more attention, particularly when assessing the environmental health of significant areas, such as those near waste-to-energy facilities. These requirements coincide with the chance to detect environmental pollutants using sensitive organisms. Bees were shown to be quite effective in evaluating the presence of certain compounds by analyzing their associated matrices, such as pollen, honey, or wax. In our study, we employed the honey bee (Apis mellifera) as an indicator to initially monitor the vicinity of the waste-to-energy plant in Acerra, which is situated in the Campania region of Italy. The primary aim was to determine whether the facility was accountable for any environmental releases of dioxins or dioxin-like compounds. Then, we assessed the presence of additional pollutants in the same area, including trace elements, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and pesticides, released by human activities. To obtain further information about environmental quality, a second biomonitoring station was installed near the Caivano S.T.I.R. (Waste Shredding, Sifting, and Packaging Plant). The results showed the dioxin levels did not exceed predetermined limitations at the Acerra site, thus demonstrating the efficacy of the waste-to-energy facility and the bees' ability to detect the presence of other pollutants. Additionally, this biomonitoring system exhibited sensitivity to environmental variations, thereby enabling the evaluation of xenobiotic flux between two proximate zones and across temporal scales. This pioneering study suggests the advantages of utilizing bees to detect a wide range of contaminants, thereby providing valuable insights into environmental quality and potential health risks for both ecosystems and human populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), dust, and wax were measured in pine needles, and PAHs were also measured in surface soil. Pearson correlation analysis was performed between the analytical values. The main compounds responsible for the increase in total PAHs were non-carcinogenic phenanthrene and fluoranthene. Therefore, the % content of carcinogenic PAHs decreased with a slope = -0.037 (r = 0.47, p < 0.01), as the total PAH concentration in pine needles increased. Correlations between individual PAHs in pine needles and surface soil were very high when only low-number ring PAHs (2R- and 3R-PAHs) were statistically analyzed and significant when only high-number ring PAHs were statistically analyzed. Low-number ring PAH mainly moves in the gas phase and diffuses into the wax layer, so it was found to be statistically significant with the wax content of pine needles. High-number ring PAHs showed a high correlation with the amount of dust in pine needles because they mainly attached to dust particles and accumulated on the surface of pine needles. The ratios of fluoranthene/pyrene and methylphenanthrene/phenanthrene for predicting the origin of atmospheric PAHs have also been proven valid for pine needles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, native bee fauna has been observed utilising anthropogenic materials as nesting substrates. Here we report the novel observation of a native solitary cavity-nesting bee, Megachile (Hackeriapis) oblonga (Smith, 1879) (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae: Megachilinae) nesting in man-made, but honey bee drawn waxed frames. This represents a unique indirect interaction between the introduced Apis mellifera and native wild bees and adds to growing evidence of how human activities are altering the behaviour of wild bees, with unknown consequences. Our observations here add to knowledge about the flexibility in nesting habits of wild bees and the potential for bees to adopt novel materials to nest in. This may represent adaptive or maladaptive behaviour; it remains to be determined whether humans are presenting wild bees with an increasing number of "ecological traps" as anthropogenic activities limit the availability of natural nesting substrates in the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The plant cuticle is an important protective barrier on the plant surface, constructed mainly by polymerized cutin matrix and a complex wax mixture. Although the pathway of plant cuticle biosynthesis has been clarified, knowledge of the transcriptional regulation network underlying fruit cuticle formation remains limited. In the present work, we discovered that tomato fruits of the NAC transcription factor SlNOR-like1 knockout mutants (nor-like1) produced by CRISPR/Cas9 [clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated protein 9] displayed reduced cutin deposition and cuticle thickness, with a microcracking phenotype, while wax accumulation was promoted. Further research revealed that SlNOR-like1 promotes cutin deposition by binding to the promoters of glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase6 (SlGPAT6 ; a key gene for cutin monomer formation) and CUTIN DEFICIENT2 (SlCD2 ; a positive regulator of cutin production) to activate their expression. Meanwhile, SlNOR-like1 inhibits wax accumulation, acting as a transcriptional repressor by targeting wax biosynthesis, and transport-related genes 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthase1 (SlKCS1), ECERIFERUM 1-2 (SlCER1-2), SlWAX2 , and glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored lipid transfer protein 1-like (SlLTPG1-like). In conclusion, SlNOR-like1 executes a dual regulatory effect on tomato fruit cuticle development. Our results provide a new model for the transcriptional regulation of fruit cuticle formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flooding or rain is a threat to many insects in nature, including herbivorous invertebrates whose hosts are emergent aquatic plants. They may thus have developed particular adaptations to withstand the flooding that is a feature of emergent plants' environment. The aphid Hyalopterus pruni (Hemiptera: Aphididae) modifies the physical and chemical conditions of its habitat by periodically spreading wax around itself with its hind legs. This behaviour constitutes a form of niche construction. We hypothesized that the aphid decreases its risk of death of own or around other individuals when submerged in water by spreading wax powder secreted from its body onto the leaves of its host plant, Phragmites australis. We compared the hydrophobicity of waxed and normal leaf surfaces. Next, we compared the survival rates of wax-powdering and nonwax-powdering aphids under submerged and rainy conditions in the laboratory and in the field. Finally, we examined whether the aphids' wax-powdering behaviour increased as a result of experiencing brief submergence or rain. The surface of the waxed area was significantly more water-repellent than the surface of unwaxed leaves. The waxed areas held air bubbles when under water. In experiments, aphids without wax around themselves exhibited lower survival rates: 22.9% in laboratory conditions and 15.7% in field conditions after 48 hr underwater. In contrast, aphids that secreted wax had higher survival rates, with 41.5% and 38.2% under laboratory and field conditions, respectively, after the same duration. Aphids exposed to rainfall showed similar results. Moreover, aphids that had experienced rain or submersion for 24 hr engaged in increased wax-powdering behaviour. These results indicate that aphids reduce their risk of drowning by powdering secreted wax onto the surface of leaves around them. Our findings suggest that niche construction by herbivorous invertebrates supports their ability to utilize host plants that grow under stressful conditions, such as emergent plants that are subject to periodic inundation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A set of linear Fischer-Tropsch (FT) waxes were oxidized to various degrees by utilizing an ozonolysis method. These waxes were comprehensively characterized in terms of their chemical composition, thermal behaviour, molecular weight distributions, and overall polarity using various analytical techniques, including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), high temperature size exclusion chromatography (HT-SEC) along with normal and reverse-phase high temperature solvent gradient interaction chromatography (HT-SGIC). Application-based studies were performed by evaluating the behaviour of these waxes in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) formulations. Analyses included hot melt mixing, single screw extrusion, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and torque rheometry. Through a combination of these techniques, the lubrication mechanism of these waxes could be explained by the Rabinovitch model. It was found that a combination of molecular size and degree of polarity play a vital role in the migration of the waxes and therefore ultimately impacts the fusion behaviour of the overall polyvinyl chloride (PVC) formulation. Results indicate that fusion times can greatly be altered when using oxidised waxes, and this could be promising for the development of multifunctional lubricant systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Warpage is one of the prominent issues in Fused Filament Fabrication. The cause of this is the rapid cooling of the polymer during extrusion. The residual thermal stresses accumulated within the print part result in a shape distortion and subsequent detachment of the object from the print bed. In this study, both experimental and numerical approaches were used to identify the stresses due to thermal shrinking that occurs in soft polymers such as wax. A temperature sweep test was performed using a rotational rheometer to measure the magnitude of axial forces that are generated due to the thermal shrinking of a thin layer of 3D printable wax. The thermal stresses responsible for warpage were computed analytically and using the FEA. It was found that due to thermal processes, the stress magnitude can reach a value of 1.17 MPa. This value is enough to cause the plastic deformation in the wax part having a thin elongated shape. In addition, Taguchi's robust design has identified two major FFF parameters that impact the warpage in amorphous soft polymers. They are the printing speed and the print bed temperature. To achieve a low level of warpage, it is important to make sure that the layer deposition occurs at medium speeds and the print bed temperature is moderately high according to the findings of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across diverse natural surfaces, remarkable interfacial functionalities emerge from micro and nanoscale self‐assemblies of wax components. The chemical composition of the epicuticular wax prescribes the intrinsic crystal morphology and resultant topography of the natural surfaces, dictating their interfacial wetting properties. The potential of regulating the topography of identical wax compositions through various crystallization routes is tested here. Crystallization through solvent evaporation produces diverse topographies with enhanced surface hydrophobicity compared to the slow cooling of the wax melt. Further, the microscale interfacial crystalline structure can be deliberately designed to operate in sticky or slippery hydrophobic regimes through control of the supersaturation level during the crystallization process. While the supersaturation level significantly impacts surface wettability by modulating the microscopic aggregation of rice bran wax crystals, the crystal structure at the molecular scale remains effectively unchanged. The relationships between the supersaturation level, surface topography and hydrophobicity modes, primarily derived for rice bran wax, are qualitatively validated for a wider range of plant‐based waxes. Crystallization of inherently hydrophobic plant‐based waxes from thermodynamically isotropic solutions offers an affordable single‐step approach for the fabrication of biodegradable hydrophobic coatings, applicable to versatile materials and geometries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Journal of Applied Plant Protection Suez Canal University is the property of Egyptian National Agricultural Library (ENAL) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In this study, the effects of applying wax on the colour, glossiness, and whiteness index (WI*) values of American black cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.) wood were investigated. Wax was applied to wooden material surfaces using a brush in one, two, and three layers. Tests were then conducted on surfaces with and without wax. The results were statistically significant according to the multivariate variance analysis. It was determined that the application of wax led to a decrease in L*, ho, and WI* values on the wooden material surfaces (parallel and perpendicular to the fibres), while the a*, b*, and C* parameters increased. In measurements parallel and perpendicular to the fibres, increases were observed in gloss values for two- and three-layer wax applications at 60° and 85°. The ∆L* values were negative when wax was applied in one, two, and three layers, whereas the ∆a*, ∆b*, and ∆C* values were positive. The ∆E* values were determined as 8.41 for one layer of wax, 11.29 for two layers, and 11.59 for three layers. Given the similarity between the ∆E* values of two and three layers of wax, it can be inferred that a third layer may not be necessary.

The cuticle is the first physical barrier between the plant and the outer environment. The cuticle is no longer viewed as a rigid "inert sealer". Components of the cuticle were found to be responsive in their function and chemical composition to environmental signals. Cuticle creation is energy-consuming and complicated. Thus, cuticle composition and renewal dynamics are precisely regulated. Activated plant immunity is also energy "expensive". We briefly summarised our knowledge of the involvement of cuticle in plant-microbe interactions. Changes in cuticle amount and composition affect plant resistance to pathogens and treatment with cutin monomers triggers plant immunity. However, our knowledge about the effects of activated plant immunity on cuticle is scarce. We hypothesise that activated immunity influences cuticle dynamics. Our in-silico gene expression analysis revealed that cuticle biosynthetic genes are modulated under conditions simulating activated immunity. The analysis indicates that the cuticle is not just a rigid component of a plant reaction to the pathogen attack. Strengthening of the cuticle could prevent pathogen penetration. However, inhibition of cuticle production could save the energy needed for plant immunity. We propose questions which should be addressed in future research. Answering them would lead to a better understanding of plant defence against pathogens.

Common bean is a species having high nutritional composition. Drought response in plants is complex phenomenon relating interactions between structure, functions and development of the plant. The Improvement of drought resistant for common bean has major objectives for many breeding programs. The growth of the plant, related to the parameter plays a vital role in the selection criteria for drought resistance. The increasing drought tolerance in commercial varieties is highly desirable. 20 varieties of common bean leaves were collected, it is subjected in vitro water stress with 10% polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6000). The parameters are determined as a relative water content (RWC), seedling root length, leaf area, stomatal index, wax and proline. The result points out that these varieties responded differently during the drought stress. Tolerant and Susceptible comes under the varieties that are categorized which are based on RWC. The tolerant varieties maintain a high water content. Generally, the tolerant varieties are higher in seedling root length, leaf area, stomatal index, wax than the susceptible varieties. The proline accumulations are higher in susceptible varieties when compared to the tolerant varieties. A significant correlation was observed from the above parameters. The results are discussed with reference to the plant’s response during drought.

Additive manufacturing of PLA parts using wax-based filament as a support structure was investigated by implementing the 2-level 3-factors full factorial design of experiments (DoE). The aim of the experiments was to identify significant FDM factors that affect the surface roughness of the parent part in the PLA/Wax interfacial region. In addition, the important factors influencing bonding strength between PLA and wax were identified using the same full factorial DoE. The printing parameters chosen for the analysis are printing temperature, nozzle speed, and the pattern type at the interfacial area. The findings of the study show that the wax-based filament can be effectively used as support material with the condition that the PLA printing temperature is at its lowest value and the nozzle speed is close to 40 mm/s. With the optimal printing condition, the surface roughness value (Ra) can reach as low as 18 μm value and the bonding strength of 0.27 MPa at the interfacial area. The results of the study have revealed the capability of FDM technology to join materials having considerably dissimilar properties.

In order to explore the effect of bagging on the wax compositions and storage quality of ‘Yali’ pear fruit, the differences and correlations of wax content and distribution, nutrition and quality indicators, and antioxidant properties of the two different treatments (polyethylene, (PE) plastic film bags and three-layer paper bags) stored at 25 ℃±1 ℃ were analyzed. The fruits were bagged at day 60 after blooming, then the bags were removed at harvest, and no-bagged fruit acted as the control. The results showed that the highest rate of fruit weight loss was found in PE plastic film bags-treated fruit, while there was no difference in fruit hardness, brittleness and compactness between the control and the two treatments within 14 days of storage. The increases in contents of wax compositions alkenes, fatty aldehydes, fatty alcohols, esters, and total wax were significantly delayed in the two treatments. The contents of alkanes C27 and C29, alkenes C24-C26, fatty acid C18:1, fatty aldehydes C26 and C34, even number fatty alcohols C22-C28, seven esters, and triterpenoids (such as α-farnesene, β-amyrin, lupeol, and β-amyrenone) in the two treatments were lower than the control. In addition, compared to the PE plastic film bags treatment, the decline in contents of wax compositions alkene C26, fatty acids C16 and C18:1, even number fatty aldehydes C28-C32, two esters (C22:1 alcohol-C18:1 acid and C24:1 alcohol-C18:1 acid), triterpenoids (Urs-12-en-28-al,3-(acetyloxy)-,(3á)-and Urs-12-en-28-al) were delayed by the three-layer paper bags treatment. Furthermore, in comparison with PE plastic film bags treatment, higher contents of peel flavonoids, peel total phenols (at day 14), fruit titratable acid and Vc (at day 14), and higher DPPH clearance rate were found in three-layer paper bags-treated fruit. According to PCA analysis of wax components, the control and the three-layer paper bags treatment were belonged to one group, while PE plastic film bags treatment was divided into the other group. The correlation analysis showed that wax components alkanes, fatty aldehydes, triterpenes and total wax in different treatments were positively correlated with the content of peel flavonoids (P