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This article details a two-phase study of the development and validation of a mentor attunement scale (MAS). Phase 1 involved theory-driven generation of 20 items to measure four facets of attunement. Rasch analysis of data collected from 390 youth mentors indicated problematic reverse-coded items, which were eliminated to improve scale functioning. Exploratory Factor Analysis and reliability analysis applied to the same dataset supported this removal, and pointed to an internally consistent, 12-item, one-factor solution, then tested using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in the second phase. CFA applied to a second cohort of 453 mentors produced a good fitting, single-factor, 5-item scale. A measurement model consisting of the five attunement items and an existing, 7-item empathy scale was then tested to confirm convergent and discriminant validity. The final solution supported a two-factor, 9-item MAS. Use of the MAS can advance the fragmented conceptualization and measurement of critical mentoring skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The aim of this randomized control trial is to test the impact of providing additional training and support to volunteers who are paired with youth of color in the Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) community-based mentoring program. The aim of the intervention activities is to enhance the capacity of mentors to have more culturally responsive and informed interactions with their mentees of color, thereby strengthening the youth's ethnic/racial identity and abilities to both cope with experiences of racism and contribute to causes that advance social justice. Methods: Recruitment started in June 2022, with a goal of enrolling 240 dyads (i.e., "matches"), each consisting of a volunteer mentor and a youth of color aged 9- to 17-years old with whom they were paired through BBBS. Each match is assigned randomly to receive either standard BBBS services or to services that incorporate the intervention activities (i.e., approximately 3 h of initial training that is then supplemented with booster emails and in the context of the contacts that case managers have with mentors routinely in the program). The BBBS staff who are responsible for delivering the enhancements receive preparatory training as well as ongoing support with implementation. The study has a mixed-methods design. Survey data, on outcomes (e.g., ethnic/racial identity, sense of mattering, efficacy) aligned with the theory of change, are collected at multiple time points within 12 months from mentors, youth and their parent/guardian, and BBBS staff. Multiple qualitative interviews are conducted with a subset of youth, mentors, parents and BBBS staff to examine how the intervention works and how it impacts relationship development and youth outcomes over time. Integration of quantitative and qualitative data will aim to better understand whether and how the intervention works with respect to its potential influence on mentor attitudes (e.g., cultural humility), mentor-youth interactions, and emergent identities and capacities that have well-documented importance for the resilience and well-being of youth of color. Discussion: This culturally tailored training and support intervention for volunteer mentors may be one way to increase the effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth of color. Study findings will have implications for youth mentoring programs and for other settings (e.g., schools, after school programs) in which children and adolescents form relationships with adults. Trial registration: www.clinicaltrials.gov—Clinical Trial #NCT05391711; original 05.21.2022; Amendment 07.01.2022: study status was updated and more details were provided on outcome measures; Amendment 11/13/2022: sample size was modified, a few mentor outcome measures were added in the 12-months survey, the timing of a mentor measure was updated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about how mentors' interactions with youths' families and broader social networks influences the mentoring relationship while considering differences in race and socioeconomic status between the mentor and the youth. This study utilized a constructivist grounded theory to examine how non-Black volunteer mentors perceived their interactions with the youth's family impacted the youth mentoring relationship. The findings highlight the many benefits of mentors establishing a genuine connection with youths' families and social networks and underline some of the difficulties associated with racial and class differences between the mentor and the youths' family and social network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A high proportion of refugees coming into the U.S. are under the age of 18, and many continue to struggle to attain basic educational qualifications which may lead to viable economic opportunity. Recently, the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) began issuing youth mentoring (YM) grants to support the integration of refugee youth. This paper explores the decision-making processes of resettlement organizations in a vertically complex network of organizations which implemented the YM programs for refugee youth in one large city of Texas. Through a series of semi-structured interviews with program implementers, findings suggest that resettlement agencies remain powerless in making key programmatic decisions, including implementation of the programs and designing accountability and effectiveness measures, which can truly evaluate the program quality. Other findings suggest that across the network of organizations involved in implementation of the YM programs, compliance with federal regulation is prioritized over accountability. The lack of program effectiveness and accountability measures have implications for one of the most vulnerable population, refugee youth. The main recommendation for policy and practice argues for the lead public agency's increased involvement in defining key outcomes for the program recipients in a vertically complex network. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth mentoring as a field of study has grown immensely in recent years, with hundreds of peer-reviewed research articles on the subject. A key driver of this interest is the demonstrated ability of youth mentoring to support positive mental health for minoritized youth. Three central theoretical models, published nearly twenty years ago, drive the majority of this body of research: the systemic model, the relational model, and the mechanisms of mentoring model. The present paper examines these theoretical models through conversation with their authors and presents their reflections and insights, the contexts in which these models were originally written, and the similarities and differences among them. By understanding the origins of these three influential theoretical models, what they center, and what they do not center, we can begin to consider the ways in which the body of work on youth mentoring is framed. Ultimately, these analyses and reflections outline future directions for the field and a forthcoming updated conceptual model of youth mentoring that centers issues of equity and social justice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Demand for adolescent mental health services has surged in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, and traditional models of care entailing in-person services with licensed mental health providers are inadequate to meet demand. However, research has shown that with proper training and supervision mentors can work with youth with mental health challenges like depression and anxiety and can even support the use of evidence-based strategies like cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). In our increasingly connected world, youth mentors can meet with young people on a web-based platform at their convenience, reducing barriers to care. Moreover, the internet has made evidence-based CBT skills for addressing depression and anxiety more accessible than ever. As such, when trained and supervised by licensed clinicians, mentors are an untapped resource to support youth with mental health challenges. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to develop and assess the feasibility and acceptability of Appa Health (Appa), an evidence-based mental health mentoring program for youth experiencing symptoms of depression and anxiety. This paper describes the development, pilot testing process, and preliminary quantitative and qualitative outcomes of Appas 12-week smartphone app program which combines web-based near-peer mentorship with short-form TikTok-style videos teaching CBT skills created by licensed mental health professionals who are also social media influencers. METHODS: The development and testing processes were executed through collaboration with key stakeholders, including young people and clinical and research advisory boards. In the pilot study, young people were assessed for symptoms of depression or anxiety using standard self-report clinical measures: the Patient Health Questionnaire-8 and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 scales. Teenagers endorsing symptoms of depression or anxiety (n=14) were paired with a mentor (n=10) based on preferred characteristics such as gender, race or ethnicity, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (LGBTQ) status. Quantitative survey data about the teenagers characteristics, mental health, and feasibility and acceptability were combined with qualitative data assessing youth perspectives on the program, their mentors, and the CBT content. RESULTS: Participants reported finding Appa helpful, with 100% (n=14) of teenagers expressing that they felt better after the 12-week program. Over 85% (n=12) said they would strongly recommend the program to a friend. The teenagers were engaged, video chatting with mentors consistently over the 12 weeks. Metrics of anxiety and depressive symptoms reduced consistently from week 1 to week 12, supporting qualitative data suggesting that mentoring combined with CBT strategies has the potential to positively impact youth mental health and warrants further study. CONCLUSIONS: Appa Health is a novel smartphone app aiming to improve the well-being of youth and reduce anxiety and depressive symptoms through web-based mentoring and engaging CBT video content. This formative research sets the stage for a large-scale randomized controlled trial recently funded by the National Institutes of Health Small Business Innovation Research program.

Past research concludes that youth mentoring achieves significant but modest change, although mentees’ opinions are often absent. This article examines how mentoring is experienced by those participating. The interpretive, qualitative methodology used gives voice to those involved. Social capital theory is used to explore how mentoring relationships are built and achieve change. The article concludes that the mentoring process and relationship can develop mentees’ protective assets and enable social capital exchange. These increase mentees’ self-awareness, sense of agency and confidence, and therefore the likelihood of achieving desired change. The article concludes by outlining programme and mentor good practice.

Youth mentoring as a field of study has grown immensely in recent years, with hundreds of peer-reviewed research articles on the subject. A key driver of this interest is the demonstrated ability of youth mentoring to support positive mental health for minoritized youth. Three central theoretical models, published nearly twenty years ago, drive the majority of this body of research: the systemic model, the relational model, and the mechanisms of mentoring model. The present paper examines these theoretical models through conversation with their authors and presents their reflections and insights, the contexts in which these models were originally written, and the similarities and differences among them. By understanding the origins of these three influential theoretical models, what they center, and what they do not center, we can begin to consider the ways in which the body of work on youth mentoring is framed. Ultimately, these analyses and reflections outline future directions for the field and a forthcoming updated conceptual model of youth mentoring that centers issues of equity and social justice.

Comfort (2023) identified the potential benefits of youth mentoring experienced by young people, using a qualitative methodology. This paper outlines the programme, mentor and mentee practices that were identified during the research. Following these practices will offer young people emotional support as well as new and potentially transformational opportunities. The practices will help develop the assets, or protective characteristics, innate in young people. They will help mentees activate their assets to access support and resources from the networks around them, allowing young people to gain the most from being mentored.

This qualitative review synthesizes evidence regarding how cultural humility (i.e., critical self‐reflection, challenging inequity) may be influenced by the experience of serving as a mentor in a youth program. A systematic search identified 35 qualitative studies with findings that address this question. Thematic synthesis of extracted data identified the following six themes, all but one of which pertains to ways in which serving as a mentor appeared to have enhanced the cultural humility of the adults involved: (1) humanizing others: awareness of experiential differences, (2) reflecting inward on one's own identity, biases, and opportunities, (3) connecting with others, (4) recognizing environmental influences on human development, (5) envisioning contributions to community change, and (6) counterevidence: deficit‐oriented attributions. Findings indicate that mentor cultural humility development primarily entailed individual and interpersonal awareness with relatively less evidence of increased awareness of and action to change inequality. The identified themes provide promising directions for future research as well as potentially useful avenues for incorporating consideration of cultural humility more intentionally in the development and evaluation of mentoring programs for youth. Highlights: Themes describe mentors' enhanced awareness of others' experiences, and own biases and opportunitiesFindings indicate relativity less evidence of environmental reflection and actionMost programs were facilitated within higher education that included ongoing support [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increasing concern raised for youth not in education and employment or training (NEET). Subsequently there is an increased demand for both education and health services that support the development of positive youths' identities, socioemotional and cognitive developmental needs, through youth mentoring strategies (Rhodes & DuBois, Current Directions in Psychological Science 17(4):254–258, 2008). Youth mentoring programmes are largely underpinned by Eurocentric approaches lacking consideration of diverse cultural needs of multi-ethnic under-served youth (Larson & Ngo, Journal of Adolescent Research 32:3–10, 2017). This article draws on data from a participant observational study highlighting how youth mentoring practice underpinned by a range of key Indigenous psychological constructs can be nurtured to improve classroom practice for kaiako (teacher, instructor). The context of investigation is focused on a youth mentoring programme in a tertiary learning environment at a large urban city of Aotearoa New Zealand that explored culturally responsive, sustaining and safe youth mentoring practice for Māori and Pacific/Pasifika rangatahi excluded from mainstream compulsory education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Program design is crucial in youth development, mentoring, after-school, and community-based programs. However, current approaches to youth program design are often limited by: 1) lack of clarity in intended program outcomes; 2) difficulties in adjusting programs to different contexts; and 3) long-term program sustainability. This paper addresses these challenges by exploring the application of Design-Based Implementation Research (DBIR) and conjecture mapping in designing a youth program in Singapore. By emphasizing targeted outcomes, contextual considerations, and stakeholder experiences, the DBIR approach offers a promising solution to enhance youth program design. This paper demonstrates the effectiveness of DBIR and conjecture mapping in improving program design, while also acknowledging and discussing the contextual limitations and considerations of this approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the United States, schools provide a large portion of child and adolescent mental health services; however, systems are restricted by resource and workforce shortages while the need for services steadily increases. This discrepancy leads to unmanageable caseloads for providers and reduced access to quality services for youth, and highlights a need to expand the school-based workforce to meet student needs. Herein, we propose a novel mental health service-delivery framework to offset these challenges by integrating mentors within the context of multitiered systems of support (MTSS) through task-shifting. We review and synthesize the literature in community and school psychology on the promises and challenges of youth mentoring and MTSS. We discuss the importance of diversifying school psychology, including the importance of increasing access to and benefit from educational supports for minoritized students, and the promise of mentoring within this context. We propose that by systematically integrating youth mentoring within MTSS there are several systems-level and individual-level benefits for youth, school staff, and mentoring nonprofits. We conclude by providing ethical, evaluation, and implementation considerations surrounding the proposed model. Impact Statement Restructuring the school-based mental health workforce by integrating community mentors into MTSS frameworks provides an innovative, powerful way to engage with diverse student populations. We propose a novel model that expands and strengthens this workforce, thereby increasing the quality and reach of school-based services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth are more likely to succeed when they feel safe at school and have access to caring relationships with adults. Systemic racism interrupts access to these assets. Within schools, racially/ethnically minoritized youth encounter policies rooted in racism, leading to decreased perceptions of school safety. Having a teacher mentor may mitigate some of the harmful effects of systemic racism and discriminatory practices. Yet, teacher mentors may not be accessible to all students. In this study, the authors tested a putative explanatory hypothesis for differences between Black and white children's access to teacher mentors. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health were used. Linear regression models were used to predict access to teacher mentors, and a mediational analysis was conducted to determine the effect of school safety on the relationship between race and teacher mentor access. Results indicate that students from higher SES backgrounds and those with parents who have greater educational attainment are more likely to have a teacher mentor. Furthermore, Black students are less likely than white students to have a teacher mentor, and school safety mediates that relationship. The implications of this study suggest that challenging institutional racism and structures may improve perceptions of school safety and teacher mentor accessibility. Highlights: Black students are less likely than white students to have a teacher mentor.School safety mediates the relationship between being Black and access to teacher mentors.Systemic racism and white supremacy are prevalent in schools which influences school safety.Schools must challenge systemic racism to improve school safety for minoritized youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The COVID-19 pandemic and associated need for social isolation left in-person youth mentoring programs scrambling to keep mentees and mentors connected, and many programs turned to e-mentoring. To better understand the transition period and to inform e-mentoring practice in a post-COVID world, this study explored the experience of mentoring programs shifting to e-mentoring during the first year of the pandemic. Seven remote focus group discussions were conducted with twenty-three staff members from twenty U.S. youth mentoring organizations that used the iCouldBe e-mentoring platform during Spring/summer 2020 or Fall/Winter 2020–2021. Thematic content analysis was used to uncover insights from the data. E-mentoring was successful overall for keeping mentees and mentors in touch, especially for matches with a strong connection before the pandemic. Zoom and text messaging were the most used virtual communication methods. Programs faced many challenges but also experienced unexpected positives, including a strong interest in future e-mentoring implementation. Participants recommended that programs interested in e-mentoring start small and with intention; they also requested a central website with e-mentoring support and ways to connect with other programs and mentors. Although the literature on e-mentoring remains limited, this study contributes a picture of e-mentoring success even during a global crisis.

Informal mentoring between youth and adults in their existing social networks can help promote positive and equitable outcomes for disadvantaged young people. Yet little published research exists examining contextual factors that may impact access to this type of beneficial relationship for under-resourced and minoritized youth. Using data from the National Survey of Children's Health (N = 32,883), a logistic regression model was run to examine the presence of an informal mentor in relation to multiple contextual factors: (1) family resources, (2) economic distress, (3) neighborhood resources, and (4) trauma. Four supplemental logistic regression models then were run testing the same relationship between informal mentorship and the identified contextual factors by race/ethnicity group. Results indicate that contextual factors matter in determining which youth have access to informal mentorship. In terms of demographic factors, there also is an indication that race/ethnicity may be more impactful than gender in determining which youth have access to informal mentorship. Several findings in the sub-sample analysis highlight the unique experiences of Black families versus families of other race/ethnicity minorities related to informal mentoring. By foregrounding a person-in-environment perspective in Critical Race Theory, the present study demonstrates how the social work perspective can be used to analyze various contextual factors of marginalization, while maintaining a focused analysis on the presence of systemic racial-inequities. In addition to these theoretical implications, identifying contextual barriers has important implications for practitioners and researchers creating interventions to expand access to informal mentoring relationships for disadvantaged youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Interest in promoting more widespread use of evidence-based practice standards in mentoring programs is rising. To describe and better understand efforts to implement recommended standards, we studied a multilevel initiative by a national advocacy organization in which state-level affiliates guided local mentoring programs through a structured quality improvement process. Specifically, we examined organizational readiness for change among mentoring program staff and staff from the state-level affiliates charged with supporting the programs as they implemented their change process. Method: We conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with 44 staff from eight affiliates and 20 programs. Verbatim interview transcripts were coded thematically, with themes organized around perceptions of organizational change commitment and change efficacy. Results: Programs and affiliates were generally highly motivated and committed to the change process. However, when resources needed to make program changes were not available, staff were more measured in their perceptions of change efficacy and noted challenges that weakened the implementation process. Conclusions: Participant experiences illuminate challenges faced by mentoring programs seeking to implement evidence-based practice standards and the state-level affiliates tasked with supporting programs. Support for implementation processes matters greatly for achieving desired outcomes. High commitment to the Quality Mentoring System process was not always accompanied by the strong change efficacy needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mentoring is a highly individualized educational measure that can support youth development in communities, schools, and talent domains. Depending on the target population, goals, structure, and medium, mentoring for youths can differ considerably. This article first reviews the main types of mentoring programs and practices for youth development in communities, schools, and talent domains. Despite the popularity of mentoring programs, many programs fail to realize the full potential of mentoring as meta‐analyses consistently show relatively small effects of mentoring. The discrepancy between the potential and actual effect of mentoring is referred to as the mentoring paradox. Crucial aspects that are held responsible for the mentoring paradox, such as adequate planning and implementation of mentoring programs, adherence to research‐based mentoring practices, as well as quality assurance of mentoring programs through systematic program research and evaluation are described. Finally, implications on how to professionalize mentoring are provided for different stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates how the implementation of program‐level practices by formal youth mentoring programs is associated with the quality of youth mentoring relationships as contexts for youth development and also examines whether this connection is mediated by the mentor‐staff working alliance. Using data from mentors (n = 542) participating in multiple programs (n = 55), multilevel path models examined hypothesized direct and mediated effects. Parallel analyses were conducted with assessments of program practices from staff (n = 219). Greater exposure to program practices was associated with higher ratings of mentoring relationship satisfaction, commitment, and security and lower mentor‐youth relationship negativity. The mentor‐staff working alliance either partially or fully mediated these associations. Staff‐reported practices predicted mentoring relationship satisfaction and commitment without mediation by the working alliance. This study suggests program practices contribute to stronger youth mentoring relationships. The findings also highlight the mentor‐staff working alliance in supporting the development of positive mentoring relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mentors' initial perceptions of the mentoring role in formal youth mentoring bonds; and the subsequent characteristics of autonomy support or autonomy control in mentoring interactions developed by mentors after 5 months of mentoring experience are discussed in this paper. The data is drawn from a longitudinal phenomenological study conducted in the Czech mentoring scheme between 2010 and 2017. In‐depth semi‐structured interviews were collected with 10 mentoring matches over 1 year of mentoring involvement. The results of Interpretive phenomenological analysis showed differences in mentors' initial perceptions of the role, and related autonomy‐supportive or autonomy‐controlling characteristics in mentors' approach. The benefits and risks of resulting autonomy support or control in mentoring interactions are discussed. The results argue for the theoretical conceptualisation of a child‐centred perspective in youth mentoring that aims at mentees' support of autonomy, active agency and empowement, thus arguing for further in‐depth exploration of natural mentoring principles in child‐centred perspective, supporting approaches such as youth‐initiated mentoring, and broadening the discussion on good evidence‐based mentoring practice in the EU context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Most research on youth mentoring relationships has focused on the mentor–mentee dyad, yet caregivers play an important role in supporting these relationships. Drawing on a large, multisite sample of youth in formal mentoring programs (N = 2165), this study investigated associations between caregiver–mentor collaboration and mentoring relationship outcomes in the context of environmental and individual youth risk factors. Analysis of novel quantitative measures assessing caregivers' experiences of the mentoring relationships revealed two factors reflecting caregivers' collaboration with mentors (caregiver involvement and mentor backing), and three factors reflecting caregivers' perceptions of mentor effectiveness (meeting youth needs, advocating for youth, and supporting youth behavior). Results indicated that greater caregiver involvement was associated with higher‐quality and longer‐lasting mentoring relationships. Few associations between risk and mentoring relationships were observed; however, indirect effects indicated that youth environmental risk was positively associated with caregiver involvement, which, in turn, was positively associated with mentoring relationship outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keller's systemic model of youth mentoring posits there are multiple pathways through which all stakeholders in the youth mentoring process, including the program staff who support the match (or case managers), influence youth outcomes. This study examines case managers' direct and indirect contributions to match outcomes and tests how transitive interactions facilitate a theorized sequence of mentoring interactions to effect greater closeness and length, specifically in nontargeted mentoring programs. A structural equations model of case manager contributions to match outcomes was tested using data from 758 mentor‐mentee matches, supported by 73 case managers across seven mentoring agencies. Results reveal direct effects of mentor‐reported match support quality on match length and indirect influences on match length through increasing youth‐centeredness, goal‐focused orientation, and closeness. The findings confirm the presence of multiple pathways of influence, including indirect effects on outcomes via transitive interactions in match support that scaffold youth‐centeredness and goal‐focused interactions in the match. Findings also suggest supervisors' evaluations of case managers may provide little information about how match support influences the nature of mentor–mentee interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this article is to demonstrate "mentoring through service‐learning" models can be powerful avenues to support the development of emerging adult practitioners, and are scalable to new global contexts when careful attention is paid to the local culture and evidence‐based principles for mentoring and service‐learning. The study presents outcome findings for mentors who participated in Campus Connections Aotearoa, a culturally translated version of a US‐based service‐learning experience and therapeutic youth mentoring program implemented in New Zealand, based on a mixed‐method, pre‐post evaluation survey involving 62 ethnically diverse mentors (81% female). A large, significant increase in mentoring self‐efficacy and small to moderate significant increases for attunement to others, sociability and leadership, and problem‐solving and perspective‐taking were found. Open‐ended survey responses revealed self‐reported changes in both personal and professional growth. The discussion highlights the importance of theory and evidence‐driven design decisions and an intensive evidence‐informed training curriculum for mentoring‐based service‐learning programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

More enduring formal youth mentoring relationships tend to be more effective, but our understanding of how such relationships develop and are sustained remains limited. This prospective, qualitative study examined the development of 67 one‐to‐one, community‐based mentoring relationships over a 2‐year period. Data included interviews with mentors, youth, and the youth's parent/guardian across multiple time‐points and agency case notes. Five developmental trajectories were identified: (a) continued growth, (b) initial growth that plateaued, (c) initial growth followed by decline and then recovery, (d) initial growth followed by decline with no recovery, and (e) little to no growth or connection. Matches in the continued growth and recovery groups were more enduring and experienced by participants as meaningful connections. Factors that appeared to have contributed to these different trajectories were youth interest in the mentoring relationship, mentor empathy, flexibility, and commitment, and program support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This case study investigated the transformative learning outcomes for undergraduate students enrolled in two sociology courses taught by The State University of New York at Albany, at an urban ecoliteracy environmental justice center. Authors conducted participant observation and gathered data from surveys, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups with university student, high school, and community stakeholders. In the short-term, sociology students exhibited an increased interest in civic engagement, an heightened awareness of community and environmental issues, and committed to adopting pro-environmental behaviors. Transformative learning outcomes were documented in relation to affirming/changes in longer-term academic, life, and career paths. This research contributes to the fields of urban environmental education and environmental sociology that advocate for a better understanding of the outcomes of programs that facilitate youth mentoring and experiential ecojustice pedagogies that emphasize social justice development, issues of power and justice, and the enhancement of civic engagement, action competencies, and critical consciousness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Community-based youth mentoring programs are popular interventions that serve a large number of Black youths throughout the country. Interestingly, the majority of mentors who volunteer their time for mentoring organizations identify as non-Hispanic White. This study examines how White mentors address topics acknowledging ethnic/racial identity and issues centered around social justice and recognize their own privileges when mentoring Black youth in community-based youth mentoring programs. Objective: The aims of the current study were to examine: (a) whether and how White volunteer mentors address ethnic/racial identity, racial socialization, and oppression in the mentoring relationship and (b) how White mentors' awareness of their own positionality and privilege impacted how they addressed ethnic/racial identity, racial socialization, and oppression in the mentoring relationship with Black youth. Method: Utilizing a constructivist grounded theory approach, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with 26 current and former mentors from six different Big Brothers Big Sisters community-based mentoring programs across the United States. Results: Findings reveal that some mentors felt uncomfortable discussing issues centered around race and others do not think it is relevant at all. Further, findings demonstrated that mentoring Black youth significantly impacts mentors' perceived awareness of social issues and acknowledgment of privileges they hold. Conclusions: Current findings highlight the need for youth mentoring programs to provide training and resources to help White mentors discuss implications of race and broader social justice issues with the Black youth they mentor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) facilitates mentoring relationships between youth and volunteer mentors. Although research has examined outcomes for youth in BBBS, relatively less investigation has been undertaken for volunteer outcomes. This study explored factors associated with changes in psychological well‐being among BBBS volunteer mentors. Participants included 593 mentors (Mage = 31) surveyed at study baseline and 15‐month follow‐up. A classification and regression decision tree approach was used to predict residualized change in psychological well‐being from study baseline with match length included as the first split variable, and demographic, individual, and relationship variables included as candidate predictors. Analyses indicated that mentors with longer relationships (>4.5 months) reported more positive change in psychological well‐being compared with mentors with shorter relationships. Perceived quality of program supervision was a further predictor within both groups of volunteers. Findings suggest that longer relationships and greater program support may contribute to mentor well‐being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Targeted, goal-focused approaches to mentoring can improve behavioral and mental health outcomes than more recreational, non-specific approaches. However, a focus on goals needs to be balanced with openness to including mentees' preferences. This study builds on prior work by exploring the benefits of goal- and youth-focused approaches to mentoring relationships from the youth mentee's perspective, including their associations with relationship measures (closeness and tension) and mental health outcomes (i.e., conduct problems, emotional symptoms, and depressive symptoms). This study was a secondary analysis of data from 2165 youth participating in thirty nationally representative mentoring programs in the United States. On average, youth were 12.3-years-old (SD = 1.43, range = 9–16) and the majority were female (55%); 36.7% were Black/African American, 22.4% were White, and 23.5% were Latino/Hispanic. Path analyses revealed 1) youth- and goal-focused approaches were positively associated with closeness, 2) youth-focused approaches were negatively associated with tension, 3) goal-focused approaches were positively associated with tension. At follow-up, a stronger mentoring relationship (less tension and greater closeness) was related to positive youth outcomes. As the field of mentoring corrects for an overemphasis on intuitive approaches and moves towards more targeted directions, it should resist veering too far from what sets the field apart from skills-training models: the role of a caring relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Youth mentoring may be able to support lonely and socially isolated youth. This study examined the association between participating in youth mentoring programs and mentee perception of social acceptance from peers. Regression models considered the association between mentoring and peer social acceptance in terms of demographics, program features, and baseline peer relationship quality for 693 youth from 27 mentoring programs. The construct validity of a social acceptance scale was explored. The scale suggested two factors of peer social acceptance. No significant changes in peer social acceptance were observed before and after participating in mentoring programs. Trends in social acceptance indicated that positive/negative feelings in the mentor−mentee relationship were associated with positive/negative indicators of peer social acceptance. Mentoring programs may be able to help prevent loneliness and social isolation through positive aspects of the mentor−mentee relationships, but additional intervention activities are likely necessary to support lonely and socially isolated youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-disclosure builds high quality relationships, but knowledge of self-disclosure in youth mentoring relationships is limited by a lack of research and reliance on self-reports. To demonstrate the value of observational methods and dyadic modeling of mentoring communication processes, this study examined the associations between behavioral observation of self-disclosure and self-reported relationship quality in 49 mentee-mentor dyads (mentees: 73.5% female; x̄ age = 16.2, range = 12–19; mentors: 69.4% female; x̄ age = 36.2, range = 19–59). Video-recorded observations of disclosure were coded on three dimensions: amount (number of topics and detail of disclosure), intimacy (disclosure of personal or sensitive information), and openness (willingness to disclose). More intimate mentor disclosure was associated with higher mentee relationship quality, whereas higher amount of mentor disclosure combined with low intimacy was associated with lower mentee relationship quality. Greater mentee openness correlated with higher mentor relationship quality, but more intimate mentee disclosures were associated with lower mentee relationship quality. These preliminary findings illustrate the potential of methods that enable in-depth investigation of dyadic processes to advance understanding of how behavioral processes may influence mentoring relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To examine associations between White mentors' beliefs regarding the presence of discrimination towards Black, Indigenous, and people of Color (BIPOC) individuals and mentoring relationship outcomes, mentors' beliefs about racial/ethnic discrimination were assessed before random mentee assignment and at the end of 9 months of mentoring. White mentors matched with BIPOC youth showed greater increases in beliefs that discrimination limits opportunities for Black Americans. Stronger endorsement of the impacts of discrimination for Hispanic Americans resulted in less youth relationship anxiety when White mentors were matched with White mentees, but not when they were matched with BIPOC mentees. Last, greater increases in beliefs that discrimination limits opportunities for Black Americans resulted in less relationship anxiety for White mentors matched with White mentees, but more relationship anxiety for those matched with BIPOC mentees. Programs should assess and address mentors' racial biases to minimize harm and augment the impact of mentoring programs for all youth. Highlights: White mentors may enter programs without understanding the discrimination their BIPOC mentees face.White mentors' racial biases shift over time, and can predict mentoring relationship quality.Mentoring programs should assess mentors' racial biases to minimize harm for BIPOC youth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Informal mentoring has many demonstrated impacts on young people, including increased educational attainment, economic mobility, and both physical and mental health. Emerging work on a typology within informal mentoring suggests that "core" mentors are often extended family members and provide emotional support, while "capital" mentors are connected to formal institutions and provide valued advice and social capital. The present paper contributes to this emerging body of work by examining which qualities of a young person and their environment lead to core versus capital mentoring using a nationally representative sample of youth (N = 4226). Using both a series of regression analyses and conditional inference trees, findings demonstrate the importance of racial‐ethnic identity and socioeconomic status. Peabody Picture Vocabulary score, a likely indicator of socioeconomic resources, was consistently a robust indicator of capital mentoring. Implications for both practice and research are discussed. Highlights: Sociodemographic characteristics predict if an adolescent will have a core or a capital mentor.More resourced youth were consistently more likely to have a capital (over core) mentor.Vocabulary test scores were a consistent predictor of capital (over core) mentoring.Black participants and females were more likely to receive core (over capital) mentoring.Findings raise questions about the previously shown impact of capital mentoring on upward mobility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The core purpose of Youth-Initiated Mentoring (YIM) is to adopt a more collaborative approach to mentoring by inviting youth to nominate and select their own mentors. This article performs a scoping review of research on YIM to identify common methodologies and emerging evidence from available studies. Six online research databases were used to identify peer-reviewed academic articles published in English. No date restrictions were applied. In total, nine peer-reviewed articles were identified and reviewed. The main findings from these studies indicate that collaborating with youth during the mentor nomination process offers several benefits to youth in mentoring relationships. Based on the knowledge gained from this scoping review, a secondary purpose of this article is to encourage researchers to adopt a more participatory approach to their future investigations of YIM. Despite YIM’s recent exploration into more collaborative approaches to practice, the model has yet to fully embrace more collaborative approaches to research. To address this limitation, this article begins a productive dialogue between YIM and Community-Based Participatory Research. Specifically, this article reviews four of the principles within Community-Based Participatory Research and surfaces helpful strategies that researchers can use to begin celebrating the local knowledge and expertise of youth and their communities.

Self-Determination Theory's (SDT) most recent 'mini-theory,' Relationships Motivation Theory (RMT) focuses on the essential ingredients of high-quality relationships (i.e. feelings of autonomy, belonging, and competence). This study explores the applicability of RMT to cross-age peer mentoring. Of particular interest was whether the RMT framework could help high-school mentors develop positive relationships with their elementary-aged mentees. The specific language and strategies mentors used to support feelings of autonomy, belonging, and competence was also of interest, as this level of detail has not been captured in previous research. High-school mentors were invited to learn about RMT during skill-building sessions. They were then asked to apply the language and skills they co-developed during mentoring sessions. Data included audio recordings of dyadic interactions, weekly mentoring logs, and interviews. Descriptive, Provisional, and In-Vivo coding were used to analyze data. Qualitative coding indicated high-school mentors were capable of co-constructing language and practices to support mentees' feelings of autonomy, belonging, and competence. Findings also indicated that mentors successfully applied this knowledge to mentoring sessions. Weekly mentoring logs indicated skill-building sessions helped mentors develop positive relationships with their mentees. The results of this study begin to suggest that RMT can help inform the cross-age peer mentoring process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: A relatively large body of research exists on the effectiveness of mentoring programs directed at youth and numerous syntheses of this literature have proven useful for advancing both research and practice. Less studied, but also important is the potential for adults serving in the role of mentor to young persons to be influenced by this experience. A scoping review was conducted with the aim of identifying and critically assessing major trends in the methods and findings in this literature. Methods: Included sources were empirical studies reporting findings that address potential influences on adults (18+) serving as mentors to youth (<18) in formal programs designed for this purpose. The initial search resulted in 3155 records and 96 were included in the review. Results: Approximately half of the studies (58%) focused on younger adults (ages 18–22 years old, e.g., college students) serving as mentors; only a small minority of studies focused on adults over 35 years old (10%). Most studies were qualitative (n = 54). Studies with a quantitative component (n = 18 quantitative only; n = 24 mixed methods) exhibited a significant risk of bias for inferring effects on mentors due to limitations in study design (e.g., lack of comparison group). Studies most often addressed potential outcomes for mentors in academic/career (55%) and social (45%) domains, when findings suggested possible effects on mentors, they were nearly universally in a positive direction. Conclusion: Existing research, although consistent with the potential for adults to benefit from the experience of mentoring youth, has insufficient rigor and representativeness to adequately address this question. Future research should utilize more rigorous quantitative designs and samples with greater representativeness of the different stages of adult development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A significant body of research has demonstrated that mentoring relationships support positive youth development. The quality of the mentoring relationship has been identified as a predictor of positive youth outcomes. However, limited research has examined how engagement in a mentoring program may be related to youth depressive symptoms specifically. The current study utilized a sample of 2003 youth participating in mentoring programs across the country (Mage = 12.32, SD = 1.42, 55.1% female) from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds (39.1% Black, 23.6% White, 22.1% Hispanic, 3.3% Native American or Alaskan Native,.4% Asian or Pacific Islander, 1.8% other, and 9.7% Multi‐Ethnic) to investigate associations between youth depressive symptoms and mentoring relationship quality. Results revealed that: (1) mean depressive symptoms decreased after participation in a mentoring program; (2) several, but not all, relationship quality indicators predicted change in depressive symptoms; (3) baseline levels of depressive symptoms negatively predicted indicators of relationship quality; and (4) associations between several relationship quality indicators and follow‐up depressive symptoms differed by baseline levels of depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the potential benefits of mentoring programs to youth and the need to provide mentors with support around building relationships with youth, especially those experiencing depressive symptoms. Highlights: SAGE Publications Inc On average, youth depressive symptoms decreased after participation in a mentoring program.Youth depressive symptoms negatively predicted indicators of relationship quality with a mentor.Indicators of the mentoring relationship quality predicted change in youth depressive symptoms.Mentoring programs may serve a protective role against symptoms of adolescent depression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The core purpose of Youth-Initiated Mentoring (YIM) is to adopt a more collaborative approach to mentoring by inviting youth to nominate and select their own mentors. This article performs a scoping review of research on YIM to identify common methodologies and emerging evidence from available studies. Six online research databases were used to identify peer-reviewed academic articles published in English. No date restrictions were applied. In total, nine peer-reviewed articles were identified and reviewed. The main findings from these studies indicate that collaborating with youth during the mentor nomination process offers several benefits to youth in mentoring relationships. Based on the knowledge gained from this scoping review, a secondary purpose of this article is to encourage researchers to adopt a more participatory approach to their future investigations of YIM. Despite YIM's recent exploration into more collaborative approaches to practice, the model has yet to fully embrace more collaborative approaches to research. To address this limitation, this article begins a productive dialogue between YIM and Community-Based Participatory Research. Specifically, this article reviews four of the principles within Community-Based Participatory Research and surfaces helpful strategies that researchers can use to begin celebrating the local knowledge and expertise of youth and their communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence shows that self-disclosure plays an important role in developing and maintaining close interpersonal relationships. As self-disclosure remains largely unexamined in the context of interventions based on youth-adult helping relationships, little is known about the effects of mentor disclosure, or the ethics of using this communication technique. In this study, we used self-report questionnaire data from 51 mentoring pairs to investigate the effect of mentor self-disclosure on relationship quality in youth mentoring relationships, and consider the ethical challenges that arise when helping adults disclose to young people. Bivariate correlations showed mentor self-disclosure was significantly associated with relationship quality for mentees, but not mentors. Qualitative content analysis showed mentors were aware of how their disclosure may have ethical implications associated with the age and role-appropriateness of topics, contradictions between their own and the mentees’ family or cultural values, and the potential to negatively influence mentee behaviour. We consider these findings in a context of ethics in youth mentoring to raise questions about the intersection of disclosure, relationship quality, and safe mentoring practice.

Youth mentoring programs have grown in popularity, both within the United States (U.S.) and abroad, as an intervention to support youth with common behavioral and emotional difficulties. However, it is unclear whether certain dimensions of youth risk may diminish the positive impact of formalized mentoring relationships. The current study therefore examined whether youth emotion regulation, a transdiagnostic risk factor for both externalizing and internalizing behavioral difficulties, predicted mentoring relationship quality and the likelihood of early match closure. Participants included 1,298 randomized mentor-youth dyads from two nationwide mentoring programs, one with chapters across the U.S. (youth: 56% female; 37% White), and another with chapters across Mexico (youth: 49% female; 100% non-Indigenous). At baseline, youth completed the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA). At program completion, youth and mentors completed measures of mentoring relationship quality. Multigroup structural equation models of youth outcomes revealed that greater youth use of cognitive reappraisal predicted better mentoring relationship quality in both countries when co-varying for sex, and that this relationship was stronger for mentor-youth pairs in the U.S. compared to those in Mexico. These findings have important implications for understanding the ways in which youth characteristics might shape the quality and impact of mentoring relationships across different cultural settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research shows that mentorship can significantly influence the lives of youth. As a society we are becoming more diverse and aware that cultural needs for youth of color are more complex. We have seen an increase in formal mentoring programs that offer services to Black youth. As this shift continues, it is imperative that culturally responsive services are considered. Little research exists that explores the importance of family engagement within the mentor–mentee relationship. When working with Black youth, it is important to understand cultural practices found within the Black family that could have an influence on the mentor–mentee relationship. This study uses qualitative inquiry to explore the perspectives of 12 Black adolescents, ages 14–18, participating in a youth mentoring program. Through individual interviews, the participants described their experiences and observations of their mentor's engagement with their family/caregiver. Findings suggest that Black youth value a genuine connection between their mentor and family/caregiver, they often assign a familial role to their mentor, and they adhere to cultural practices observed within the Black family. These results have implications for culturally responsive practices for youth mentoring programs to incorporate when working with Black youth and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This mixed-methods research study utilised interviews and online surveys to investigate a New Zealand-based youth mentoring programme that assists academically talented students to attend university. The study explored stakeholders' perceptions of the programme's benefits and challenges through data collected from current students and alumni (n = 144), mentors (n = 137), and financial partners (n = 49). Most participants expressed satisfaction with the programme. A noteworthy strength was the programme'sthree-pronged approach of financial support with university costs, a mentor for each student, and paid work experience. Challenges with the programme included mentors' and financial partners' lack of cultural knowledge about the Māori and Pacific Island students they supported. Mentors also appeared ill-equipped to deal with communication and relationship breakdowns with their mentees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current paper presents lessons learned from a research-to-practice partnership between mentoring program practitioners and researchers that focused on the development and implementation of a cultural humility training for volunteer mentors. Using multiple data sources (e.g., training materials, field notes, mentor surveys), we present a description of the research-to-practice partnership and the Culturally Smart Relationships pilot training content. We generate practice-oriented lessons to inform future cultural humility training work with staff and volunteers in youth programs. Our lessons reflect recommendations that emerged from five project phases: (a) organizational commitment to justice, equity, diversity, inclusion; (b) training curriculum and logistical planning; (c) "To Zoom, or not to Zoom''; (d) facilitation of the training; and (e) post-training and ongoing support. The pilot training content and lessons learned have implications for youth programs by elucidating training as one component of a broader approach for equity in youth developmental program practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although federal funding has been provided to add mentoring to youth development programs for decades, we still lack knowledge about the impacts of mentoring on youth outcomes. This research seeks to fill a gap by documenting youth outcomes from an enhanced mentoring approach for urban Boys and Girls Clubs (BGC) in the Southeastern United States delivered by paid staff who serve as mentors through group activities and 1:1 interactions with youth. We perform logistic regressions of secondary data from a cohort of BGCs to understand the relationships between enhanced mentoring and youth outcomes related to program retention, behaviors, and academics. We find the presented approach has a significant relationship with retention with those mentored being 1.92 times more likely to return the following program year. Mentored youth also experienced higher expectations from staff and were less likely to be involved in a physical fight with peers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]