Does predation drive morphological differentiation among Adriatic populations of the three-spined stickleback?

Morphometric differentiation among freshwater fish populations is a commonplace occurrence, although the underlying causes for this divergence often remain elusive. We analysed the degree and patterns of morphological differentiation among nine freshwater three-spined stickleback ( Gasterosteus aculeatus) populations inhabiting isolated karst rivers of the Adriatic Sea basin, to characterise the phenotypic diversity and differentiation in these populations. The analyses revealed marked and significant morphometric differentiation - especially in traits related to predator defence amongst most populations - even among those located within close geographic proximity in the same catchment system. Accordingly, the degree of morphometric and neutral genetic differentiation, as assessed from variability in 15 microsatellite loci from a parallel study, were uncorrelated across the populations. However, PST/ FST comparisons revealed that the degree of phenotypic differentiation ( PST) among populations exceeded that to be expected from genetic drift alone, suggesting a possible adaptive basis for the observed differentiation. In fact, avian predation pressure and several physiochemical environmental variables were identified as the main putative drivers of the observed differentiation, particularly in the dorsal spines, ascending process and lateral plates. Hence, the high degree of morphometric differentiation among Adriatic three-spined stickleback populations appears to reflect adaptation to local ecological conditions. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2015, 115, 219-240. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]