Eocene–Oligocene cooling and the diversification of Hemidactylus geckos in Peninsular India.

• Molecular phylogeny and species delimitation uncover multiple new and distinct lineages. • Lineage accumulation shows an early increase in diversification rates. • Dry habitat state at the basal node concurrent with Eocene–Oligocene cooling. • Presence of arid ecosystem inferred during Eocene–Oligocene period in Peninsular India. The Eocene–Oligocene cooling marks a global shift towards a cooler and drier climate, concurrent with significant turnover in biota globally. In Peninsular India, palynological investigations suggest a shift from wet rainforest vegetation to dry and seasonal species during this period. However, the grassland and open habitats that dominate this region at present expanded relatively recently due to Late Miocene intensification of monsoon seasonality. We test the possible role of these climatic shifts in generating the dry habitat diversity of an endemic radiation of Hemidactylus geckos distributed in both wet and dry habitats, by investigating whether (a) the beginning of the diversification of dry habitat lineages overlap with the Eocene–Oligocene cooling or late Miocene aridification and (b) accompanied by an increase in diversification. Molecular data (two nuclear and two mitochondrial gene fragments) were generated for samples collected across Peninsular India, and along with previously published data, a time-calibrated phylogeny was reconstructed. Ancestral state reconstruction of dry and wet habitat states was carried out on the time-calibrated phylogeny and γ-statistics along with a test for diversity-dependent diversification utilized to examine the trend in lineage accumulation. Results show the ancestral node of this radiation to have a dry habitat state, which began diversifying between 39 and 32 million years ago, concurrent with the Eocene–Oligocene cooling. Furthermore, lineage diversification fit a diversity-dependent model of diversification and the γ-statistics revealed an early increase in diversification followed by a slowdown later. The deep divergences of dry habitat lineages concurrent with the Eocene–Oligocene cooling suggest that this could have served as an ecological opportunity facilitating an early increase in lineage diversification of Hemidactylus in this region. These results suggest an ancient origin and long persistence of arid ecosystems in Peninsular India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]