Discrete element modelling of large soil deformations under heavy vehicles.

• Discrete element soil model with surface friction, cohesion and rolling resistance. • Strength measured using triaxial test and cone penetrometer on numerical soils. • The relevant space of frictional and frictional-cohesive soils can be represented. • Simulation of rut formation from a heavy vehicle with different loads and soil strengths. • Particle-based terrain models are valid for studying soil response from heavy vehicles. This paper addresses the challenges of creating realistic models of soil for simulations of heavy vehicles on weak terrain. We modelled dense soils using the discrete element method with variable parameters for surface friction, normal cohesion, and rolling resistance. To find out what type of soils can be represented, we measured the internal friction and bulk cohesion of over 100 different virtual samples. To test the model, we simulated rut formation from a heavy vehicle with different loads and soil strengths. We conclude that the relevant space of dense frictional and frictional-cohesive soils can be represented and that the model is applicable for simulation of large deformations induced by heavy vehicles on weak terrain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]