Cadmium effects on plant reproductive organs: Physiological, productive, evolutionary and ecological aspects.

Studies involving the effects of long‐term exposure of plants to cadmium (Cd) are not usual, hence, data about Cd‐induced impacts on plant reproductive organs are scarce. The lack of robust information about this matter is surprising and also worrying because it is not yet clear whether (and how strong) Cd influences yield, and quality of fruits and seeds. Such information is necessary to guide strategies to manage crops and to avoid negative impacts on the environment and human health. This review gathers information about the effects of long exposure of flowers, fruits and seeds to Cd. A critical analysis of the data related to this matter, which have been published in the last 30 years, was performed. Ecological and evolutionary aspects were also discussed, and new insights were provided. The information about Cd‐induced effects on fruit and seed quality is relevant to support not only further scientific studies, but also environmental, economic and health policies in times of increasing heavy metal pollution in agricultural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]