Fouling mitigation in reverse osmosis processes with 3D printed sinusoidal spacers.

• 3D-printed spacers: conventional (C), sinusoidal straight (ST) and slant (SL). • SL ≈ C > ST in terms of water flux; while C < ST < SL for channel pressure loss. • For inorganic fouling tests, SL > ST > C in terms fouling mitigation capability. • For biofouling tests, SL > ST > C in terms biofouling mitigation capability. • Channel pressure loss increase << energy saved from biofouling for SL spacer. [Display omitted] Feed spacers are an essential part of spiral wound modules for reverse osmosis (RO). They create flow channels between membrane sheets and manipulate hydrodynamic conditions to control membrane fouling. In this work, additive manufacturing (Polyjet) was used to print novel sinusoidal spacers with wavy axial filaments connected by perpendicular (ST) or slanted (SL) transverse filaments. When tested with 2 g/L NaCl solution, conventional and SL spacers had similar flux while the ST spacer had about 5–7% lower flux. The pressure losses for ST and SL spacers increased by up to 3 folds depending on the flow condition. In the colloidal silica fouling and biofouling tests, the sinusoidal spacers showed lower membrane permeability decrease of 46% for ST, 41% for SL vs 56% for conventional and 26% for ST, 22% for SL vs 33% for conventional, respectively. Optical coherence tomography images from colloidal silica fouling and confocal images from biofouling tests revealed that fouling patterns were closely associated with the local hydrodynamic conditions. Overall, sinusoidal spacers showed promising results in controlling membrane fouling, but there is potential for further optimizations to reduce channel pressure loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]