A functional model for the tag question paradigm: The case of invariable tag questions in English and Portuguese.

• Unified functional framework for the tag question paradigm across languages. • Function-to-form correlations for eight types of invariable tag questions. • Grammatical, contextual and sociolinguistic information in English and Portuguese. • Multi-feature prediction models for invariable tags in English and Portuguese. • Formal and functional frequency counts for invariable tags in English and Portuguese. While research has mostly focused on the pragmatics of variable tag questions, fewer studies have explored invariable tags, either for their own sake or in contrast with other tag types within and across languages. It will be argued that invariable tag questions are as much part of the tag question system as variable tag questions, and that a unified functional model needs to consider both types in order to compare function-to-form mappings and reveal language variation, as well as the factors motivating their use. This study proposes one such model comprising eight functional types of tag questions, i.e., informational , affective , challenging , hortatory , facilitative , focusing , phatic and regulatory , in relation to four clusters of grammatical, dialogic, generic and sociolinguistic features. Based on the analysis of 539 invariable tag questions in British English and European Portuguese, results show that the constructions are more frequent and functionally varied in Portuguese (N = 397 vs. 142). In addition, based on statistical analyses, corresponding multi-feature prediction models are obtained for the proposed functional types of invariable tag questions in the two languages under inspection, thereby uncovering novel contributions to the pragmatics of invariable tag questions within the tag question paradigm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]