Reduced inequality in ambient and household PM2.5 exposure in China.

[Display omitted] • Exposure inequality was contrary between ambient and household PM 2.5 exposure. • The poorest experienced the highest PM 2.5 exposure though ambient exposure was low. • Negative concentration index gradually increased indicating a transition towards equality. • Aggressive countermeasures reduced ambient exposures but benefited people disproportionately. • Spontaneous clean household energy transition effectively reduced the exposure inequality. The society has high concerns on the inequality that people are disproportionately exposed to ambient air pollution, but with more time spent indoors, the disparity in the total exposure considering both indoor and outdoor exposure has not been explored; and with the socioeconomical development and efforts in fighting against air pollution, it is unknown how the exposure inequality changed over time. Based on the city-level panel data, this study revealed the Concentration Index ( C ) in ambient PM 2.5 exposure inequality was positive, indicating the low-income group exposed to lower ambient PM 2.5 ; however, the total PM 2.5 exposure was negatively correlated with the income, showing a negative C value. The low-income population exposed to high PM 2.5 associated with larger contributions of indoor exposure from the residential emissions. The total PM 2.5 exposure caused 1.13 (0.63–1.73) million premature deaths in 2019, with only 14 % were high-income population. The toughest-ever air pollution countermeasures have reduced ambient PM 2.5 exposures effectively that, however, benefited the rich population more than the others. The transition to clean household energy sources significantly affected on indoor air quality improvements, as well as alleviation of ambient air pollution, resulting in notable reductions of the total PM 2.5 exposure and especially benefiting the low-income groups. The negative C values decreased from 2000 to 2019, indicating a significantly reducing trend in the total PM 2.5 exposure inequality over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]