A review of nonlethal and lethal control tools for managing the damage of invasive birds to human assets and economic activities.

Invasive birds cause damage to economies, natural resources, and human safety across the globe. In the United States, rock doves (Columba livia), Eurasian collared doves (Streptopelia decaocto), rose-ringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri), monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus), common mynas (Acridotheres tristis), European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), and house sparrows (Passer domesticus) are among the invasive and often harmful small-bodied birds inhabiting periurban habitats. The destructive nature of these species warrants a review of methods to reduce or eradicate populations along with methods to reduce damage when population eradication cannot be achieved. We reviewed damage management literature from these species' native and introduced ranges. Additionally, we used the behavior and ecology of these species to inform tool recommendations and potential efficacy under various damage scenarios, while being sensitive to cultural preferences and location of implementation (residential, commercial, and agricultural). Although this review focuses on invasive birds in the United States, it is applicable to other pest species across the globe. Our review highlights areas where research is needed to validate promising damage management methods (lethal control, fertility control, habitat modification, exclusionary methods, frightening devices, and chemical repellents). Where birds are invasive, integrated pest management techniques should focus on eradication or population reduction (toxicants, shooting, and trapping) to keep populations at levels where nonlethal tools can reduce damage. We acknowledge the efficacy of an eradication campaign depends on biological, environmental, and economic factors, along with social license for lethal removal. We recommend integrated pest management strategies including lethal and nonlethal tools specific to the damage problem. Sustained efforts to reduce invasive populations should be used along with integrated deterrent strategies for short-term damage relief. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]