Cannibalism and burial in the late Upper Palaeolithic: Combining archaeological and genetic evidence.

The Magdalenian (∼23.5–∼13.5 kBP) is one of the two major technocomplexes identified in Europe during the late Upper Palaeolithic and is notable for its complex worked bone and lithic industries, and both artistic and ritualistic behaviours. Magdalenian funerary behaviours, however, remain enigmatic, with human assemblages often represented by scattered and fragmented remains showing evidence of post-mortem manipulation that has been associated with cannibalism. To best clarify any patterns of funerary behaviour during the Magdalenian, an exhaustive literature review was performed to identify Magdalenian sites that have delivered human remains. Of the 59 sites identified, it was possible to ascertain funerary behaviour at 25 sites, with 10 deposits attributed to primary burial, 13 showing evidence of anthropic modification indicative of cannibalism, and two sites combining both behaviours. Given the similarities of the anthropic modifications observed on the cutmarked and cannibalised human remains across sites, the high frequency and geographic distribution of this practice, and the association, in some of the sites, of cannibalism with the ritualistic manipulation of human remains, it is proposed that cannibalism during the Magdalenian was practiced as a form of funerary behaviour rather than for necessity or as gastronomic cannibalism. Funerary cannibalism appears in greater abundance during the Middle Magdalenian whilst primary burials are more common during the Upper and terminal Magdalenian. Further, although genetic data are limited, we identify a relationship between funerary behaviour and genetic ancestry, with all cannibalised individuals showing ancestry associated with the GoyetQ2 cluster, indicative of Magdalenian human groups, whilst sequenced individuals found in a primary burial context show a genetic affinity with the Epigravettian (Villabruna associated ancestry), the other major technocomplex of the period. We hypothesise that cannibalism is a funerary behaviour indicative of GoyetQ2 associated Magdalenian populations, and that differences in funerary behaviours during the Magdalenian reflect distinct genetic ancestries indicative of known population movements during the terminal Upper Palaeolithic. This interpretation must be tempered however given that limited taphonomic or genetic study has been performed at the majority of Magdalenian sites, and thus to fully clarify the funerary behaviours of Magdalenian groups additional focus on understudied Magdalenian assemblages needs to be established. • Primary burial and funerary cannibalism are identified as the mortuary practices of the Magdalenian Upper Palaeolithic culture. • It is proposed that funerary cannibalism was a widespread funerary behaviour of the culture, given its recurrent appearance across sites and close association with the ritualistic manipulation of human remains with the shaping of skull-cups and engravings. • An association between funerary behaviour and genetic ancestry is identified, with individuals showing GoyetQ2 ancestry (associated with the Magdalenian) found solely in a funerary cannibalism context, and those carrying a Villabruna ancestry component (associated with the Epigravettian) found in a primary burial context. • When considered alongside prior studies that have identified widespread replacement of Magdalenian groups by Epigravettian groups during the late Upper Palaeolithic, results intimate that the shift from cannibalism to primary burial behaviour may be further indication of widespread population turnover in late Upper Palaeolithic Europe. • Further taphonomic and genetic study on as yet unstudied Magdalenian and Epigravettian human skeletal assemblages is required to fully clarify these relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]