Hybridization and reticulate evolution in Diphasiastrum (flat-branched clubmosses, Lycopodiaceae) – New data from the island of Taiwan and Vietnam.

[Display omitted] • We characterize two hybridogenous, sexual and allotetraploid Diphasiastrum spp. • D. wightianum is allotetraploid and originates from D. veitchii × D. multispicatum. • D. yueshanense is part of a hybrid complex of D. veitchii and an unknown parent. • Flow cytometry, cp + nc markers and MIG-seq reveal triploid and tetraploid taxa. • We present an evolutionary scheme to explain the complex speciation events. In the species groups related to Diphasiastrum multispicatum and D. veitchii , hybridization was investigated in samples from northern and southern Vietnam and the island of Taiwan, including available herbarium specimens from southeast Asia. The accessions were analyzed using flow cytometry (living material only), Sanger sequencing and multiplexed inter-simple sequence repeat genotyping by sequencing. We detected two cases of ancient hybridization involving different combinations of parental species; both led via subsequent duplication to tetraploid taxa. A cross D. multispicatum × D. veitchii from Malaysia represents D. wightianum , a tetraploid taxon according to reported DNA content measurements of dried material (genome formulas MM, VV and MMVV, respectively). The second case involves D. veitchii and an unknown diploid parent (genome formula XX). Three hybridogenous taxa (genome formulas VVX, VVXX, VVVX) were discernable by a combination of flow cytometry and molecular data. Taxon I (VVX, three clones found on Taiwan island) is apparently triploid. Taxon II represents another genetically diverse and sexual tetraploid species (VVXX) and can be assigned to D. yueshanense , described from Taiwan island but occurring as well in mainland China and Vietnam. Taxon III is as well most likely tetraploid (VVVX) and represented by at least one, more likely two, clones from Taiwan island. Taxa I and III are presumably asexual and new to science. Two independently inherited nuclear markers recombine only within, not between these hybrids, pointing towards reproductive isolation. We present an evolutionary scheme which explains the origin of the hybrids and the evolution of new and fully sexual species by hybridization and subsequent allopolyploidization in flat-branched clubmosses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]