Designing user interfaces for partially automated Vehicles: Effects of information and modality on trust and acceptance.

• The study investigates the effects of user interface on trust, perceived risk, and acceptance in partially automated driving using a driving simulator. • The study designs and evaluates four UIs combining surrounding and manoeuvre information with visual and auditory modalities. • The user interface, delivering both surrounding and manoeuvre information via visual and auditory modalities, showed the highest trust and acceptance and the lowest perceived risk. • Criticality of event types and individual differences of participants were found to have a more substantial influence on drivers' behaviour, trust, and perceived risk compared to the user interfaces. • Eye-tracking results demonstrated that drivers checked the centre-console user interface when present, with no difference between the four user interfaces. Trust and perceived safety are pivotal in the acceptance of automated vehicles and can be enhanced by providing users with automation information on the (safe) operation of the vehicle. This study aims to identify how user interfaces (UI) can enhance drivers' trust and acceptance and reduce perceived risk in partially automated vehicles. Four interfaces were designed with different levels of complexity. These levels were achieved by combining automation information (surrounding information vs surrounding and manoeuvre information) and modality (visual vs visual and auditory). These interfaces were evaluated in a driving simulator in which a partially automated vehicle reacted to an event of a merging and braking vehicle in its front. The criticality of the events was manipulated by the factors merging gap (in meters) and deceleration (m/s2) of the vehicle in front. The reaction of the automation was either to brake or to change lanes. The results show that an optimal combination of automation information and modality enhances drivers' trust and acceptance. More specifically, the most advanced UI, which provided surrounding and manoeuvre information via the visual and auditory modalities , was associated with the highest trust and acceptance ranking and the lowest perceived risk. Manoeuvre information delivered through the auditory modality was particularly effective in enhancing trust and acceptance. The benefits of the UIs were consistent over events. However, in the most critical events, drivers did not feel entirely safe and did not trust the automation completely. This study suggests that the design of UIs for partially automated vehicles shall include automation information via visual and auditory modalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]