Whistleblowers — heroes or traitors?: Individual and collective responsibility for ethical behaviour

This paper reviews the literature on whistleblowing in the context of the ethical issues and conflicts of loyalties it raises. Factors which effect the likelihood of whistleblowing, such as individual and organisational characteristics and the severity of the incident, are discussed. Organisational responses, including retaliation, and the effectiveness of whistleblowing are considered, as well as the state of legal protection in the US and UK. The particular issues raised by whistleblowing in science and research are considered and the similarities and differences in the treatment of whistleblowers in the former Soviet Union and the US examined. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]