Genotoxic and cell-transforming effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles.

The in vitro genotoxic and the soft-agar anchorage independent cell transformation ability of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nano-TiO 2 ) and its microparticulated form has been evaluated in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) and in mouse embryonic fibroblast (NIH/3T3) cells. Nano-TiO 2 of two different sizes (21 and 50 nm) were used in this study. The comet assay, with and without the use of FPG enzyme, the micronucleus assay and the soft-agar colony assay were used. For both the comet assay and the frequency of micronuclei a statistically significant induction of DNA damage, was observed at the highest dose tested (1000 µg/mL). No oxidative DNA damage induction was observed when the comet assay was complemented with the use of FPG enzyme. Furthermore, long-term exposure to nano-TiO 2 has also proved to induce cell-transformation promoting cell-anchorage independent growth in soft-agar. Results were similar for the two nano-TiO 2 sizes. Negative results were obtained when the microparticulated form of TiO 2 was tested, indicating the existence of important differences between the microparticulated and nanoparticulated forms. As a conclusion it should be indicated that the observed genotoxic/tranforming effects were only detected at the higher dose tested (1000 µg/mL) what play down the real risk of environmental exposures to this nanomaterial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]