Antlers as bioindicators of environmental pollution: principles, achievements, and future research directions.

The periodically detached and regenerated antlers are a diagnostic trait of deer (family Cervidae) and represent the most rapidly growing bones of mammals. During their species-specific and seasonally fixed growth period of a few months, antlers can accumulate large amounts of 'bone-seeking' elements that are incorporated into the bone mineral. This makes antlers 'naturally standardised' environmental samples that can be used to monitor environmental pollution of deer habitats by these elements. The present contribution reviews studies utilising hard antlers as environmental archives to reconstruct temporal and spatial variation of contaminant levels in different geographic regions. We further discuss the use of lead isotope signatures in antlers for source apportionment of environmental lead and the impact of excess fluoride uptake on antler mineralisation. In addition, promising areas for future research using antlers as bioindicators are discussed. Antlers are a unique trait of deer and can be used as 'naturally standardised' environmental samples for monitoring ambient levels of bone-seeking pollutants. The present paper reviews basic aspects of antler growth and the history of using antlers as monitoring units in environmental research. Furthermore, we identify promising approaches for future studies using antlers as bioindicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]