Three-dimensional Printing and Modeling in Interventional Cardiology: A Comprehensive Review.

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the leading causes of death, with an increasing incidence of coronary heart disease, heart failure, and arrhythmias. The significance of surgical interventions across cardiovascular conditions requires modern imaging modalities that better visualize the anatomy of the heart across different patient demographics, aiding in preprocedural planning and intraoperative procedures. We conducted a literature search in databases such as PubMed/Medline and ScienceDirect and included a comprehensive analysis of findings from articles in English related to three-dimensional (3D) printing in the anatomical visualization, preprocedural surgical planning, and therapeutic use for various cardiovascular conditions. With the incorporation of cardiac imaging techniques, 3D models can recapitulate the coronary vasculature to understand the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis and thromboembolisms, as well as diving into its clinical applications in preoperative surgical planning and assisting in interventional procedures for congenital heart defects, valvular disorders, tachyarrhythmias, aneurysms, and cardiomyopathy. We also identified that the integration of scaffolds and biomaterial could assist in regenerative medicine alongside 3D printing and its applications in the treatment of coronary artery disease and ischemic heart conditions. Our review concludes that the literature surrounding 3D-printed models is promising but requires further investigations on its large-scale translational impact on patient care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]