Biodiesel Production over Banana Peel Biochar as a Sustainable Catalyst.

Biodiesel from waste frying oil was produced via methanolysis using biochar-based catalysts prepared by carbonizing banana peels (350 °C and 400 °C) mixed with 20% (wt.) of alkali carbonates (Na, Li, or K). The catalysts exhibited a bi-functional character: acidic and basic. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the alkali's role in char graphitization, influencing morphology and oxygen content. Oxygenated surface sites acted as acidic sites for free fatty acid esterification, while alkali sites facilitated triglyceride transesterification. The best catalyst obtained by carbonization at 350 °C, without alkali modifier, led to 97.5% FAME by processing a waste frying oil with 1.2 mg _KOH/g _oil acidity. Most of the studied catalysts yielded high-quality glycerin, allowing the significance of homogenous catalyzed processes to be discarded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]