Prayers by the Crusader Knights: Ritual Observation and Literary Adaptations in the Narratives of the First Crusade.

This article concerns the depiction of prayers of lay crusaders in the chronicles and chansons of the crusades, mainly from the twelfth century. The interpretation of prayer varies considerably between the genres. In the Latin chronicles, prayers are recited in public under the supervision and guidance of the clergy as parts of collective devotional rituals. The vernacular, semifictional, and fictional crusader chansons have a similar concept of prayer, but they also refer to crusader knights taking initiative in individual prayers. In the latter case, the invocation is sometimes accompanied by fanciful rituals absent from the historical sources. The question is, why is it important to depict in chansons elite men engaged in religious practices that were incompatible with the reality of combat? The portrayal of men preparing for battle is remarkably similar across the two genres, with the exception of prayer. This article argues that the prayers of the lay aristocrats had several functions in the chansons. In addition to the literary tendency to heighten tension before major battles by adding an oration, the descriptions of prayers of individual crusaders show them claiming spiritual authority and overtaking the role of the clergy. Furthermore, the "epic" prayer was also used as a method of defusing the fear that most combatants were likely to face before and during battle. The mode of expression in the narratives is dependent on the text's audience and intended purpose. The Latin narratives were written by clerics for clerical and lay audiences to propagate the meritorious warfare of the militia Christi under the auspices of the Roman pontificate, whereas in the case of the chansons of the crusades the stress was more on the military exploits and leadership of the aristocracy. In both cases, narrative techniques shape the content according to the tastes of the anticipated recipients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]