H II REGIONS: WITNESSES TO MASSIVE STAR FORMATION

We describe the first three-dimensional simulation of the gravitational collapse of a massive, rotating molecular cloud that includes heating by both non-ionizing and ionizing radiation. These models were performed with the FLASH code, incorporating a hybrid, long characteristic, ray-tracing technique. We find that as the first protostars gain sufficient mass to ionize the accretion flow, their H II regions are initially gravitationally trapped, but soon begin to rapidly fluctuate between trapped and extended states, in agreement with observations. Over time, the same ultracompact H II region can expand anisotropically, contract again, and take on any of the observed morphological classes. In their extended phases, expanding H II regions drive bipolar neutral outflows characteristic of high-mass star formation. The total lifetime of H II regions is given by the global accretion timescale, rather than their short internal sound-crossing time. This explains the observed number statistics. The pressure of the hot, ionized gas does not terminate accretion. Instead, the final stellar mass is set by fragmentation-induced starvation. Local gravitational instabilities in the accretion flow lead to the build-up of a small cluster of stars, all with relatively high masses due to heating from accretion radiation. These companions subsequently compete with the initial high-mass star for the same common gas reservoir and limit its mass growth. This is in contrast to the classical competitive accretion model, where the massive stars are never hindered in growth by the low-mass stars in the cluster. Our findings show that the most significant differences between the formation of low-mass and high-mass stars are all explained as the result of rapid accretion within a dense, gravitationally unstable, ionized flow.