Career Counseling With Lesbian Clients: Using the Theory of Work Adjustment as a Framework

Practical Techniques Using the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA; R. V. Dawis & L. H. Lofquist, 1984; L. H. Lofquist & R. V. Dawis, 1969) as a framework for identifying potential career challenges for lesbians, the authors explore the relationship between outness and discrimination and the four primary components of TWA. Career counseling implications are discussed, and specific suggestions are made for counselors. Women who self-identify as lesbian represent a significant and invisible minority (Fassinger, 1991); current estimates suggest that as much as 3.6% of the population, or 2,300,000 women, are lesbian (Diamond, 1999). Statistics from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000) indicated that women, as a group, earn only 72% of the amount earned by their male counterparts. Lesbian women report even more diminished earnings, at 5% to 14% less than the national average for women (Badgett, 1995). Reported incidents of employment discrimination as well as hate crimes against lesbians have increased over the past 5 years (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2000). With these very real threats to economic and physical survival, it seems that a lesbian would have strong reasons for maintaining secrecy regarding her sexual orientation. Conversely, using the high amount of energy required to accomplish this may interfere with job performance and satisfaction and may stall career development and advancement (Fogarty, 1980). This dichotomy places lesbians in positions in which either choice may result in an outcome that is less than optimal, and possibly detrimental, to their careers. Lesbians must determine the most efficacious strategy for career advancement while balancing the importance of "outness" on the job against the potential for negative consequences. Black, Gates, Sanders, and Taylor (2000) found that as a group, individuals who self-report as lesbian or gay exist in all age categories, approximate the racial mix found in the total population, and are better educated than the average individual. Many contemporary authors also emphasized the similarities between lesbians and heterosexual women in appearance, interests, goals, and identities (e.g., Loulan, 1990). Despite the similarities, however, lesbians often face more obstacles as they work to achieve their career goals, while following career paths that are often more circuitous and lengthy (Boatwright, Gilbert, Forrest, & Ketzenberger, 1996) than those of heterosexual women. Perceived and actual threats to employment security exist for lesbians and potentially limit self-disclosure. Yet, the process of sexual identity formation has been shown to transform, sometimes positively and sometimes negatively, virtually all aspects of a lesbian's life, including her career (Fassinger, 1996). There are two specific concerns of lesbian career development that invite further exploration: the decision to disclose sexual orientation to others and the experience of discrimination that is based on sexual orientation. Because the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Lofquist & Dawis, 1969) is a comprehensive career theory that incorporates career choice and subsequent career development while addressing both individual characteristics and pertinent environmental factors, it is well-suited for application to lesbian career concerns. Using TWA as a framework, we explore career concerns of lesbians and discuss implications for career counseling. Theory of Work Adjustment and Its Relationship to Lesbian Career Development Career development literature that specifically examined the career concerns of lesbians and gay men is limited, and little empirical work has been completed to date. Several traditional career theories have been evaluated for their applicability to lesbians and gay men, including those of Holland (see Mobley & Slaney, 1996), Super (see Dunkle, 1996), and Social Cognitive Career Theory (see Morrow, Gore, & Campbell, 1996). …