Role of solid-phase extraction in wastewater-based epidemiology

The determination of biomarkers in sewage samples is a useful tool to monitor the consumption of contaminants of human use evolving to wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by high specific and sensitive determination techniques such as liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry–based detection is usually used for the determination of the low concentration of these biomarkers in such complex samples. The different SPE sorbents and the variables involved in the SPE protocol such as sample loading, washing, and elution solvent are critically reviewed from studies dealing with WBE. Moreover, the results in form of extraction recoveries and matrix effect achieved are discussed. At the end, the review intents to overview the different possibilities of SPE when applied in WBE.