Brain, Breathing and the Heart

The generation of rhythmic activity is fundamental to the brain. Rhythmicity is critical for cognition, learning and memory, the generationof sleep and wakefulness, and the generation of rhythmic motor behaviors. Breathing is a highly integrated rhythmic behavior that playsmultiple roles through its interactions with the heart and various states of the brain and by controlling ventilation. Various experimentalapproaches led to identifying and manipulating rhythmogenic networks and neurons in the medulla that are critical for the generationof breathing. These rhythmogenic networks can reconfigure to generate different activity patterns that give rise to eupnea, sighs, andgasping. They contain excitatory and inhibitory neurons that are critical for rhythmogenesis, establishing the phase relationship andfrequency of respiratory activity. Rhythmogenic networks in the brainstem interact with multiple brain areas and the heart to establishthe true complexity of the breathing behavior that is essential for life.