The biology of Canadian weeds. 105. Linaria vulgaris Mill

Yellow toadflax, Linaria vulgaris Mill. (Scrophulariaceae), is a weed of rangelands and agricultural crops. Introduced from Eurasia into North America more than 300 yr ago, it is now naturalized in all provinces and territories up to 60° northern latitude and beyond 2000 m altitude. It became a concern in the middle of this century when it invaded the prairies. Its seriousness as a weed declined in the late 1950s, possibly as a result of biological control. Concern has been renewed recently because the adoption of minimum tillage techniques could lead to greater abundance. Reproduction is vigourous by means of adventitious root buds and by high seed production. Growth forms, vegetative reproduction, flower phenology, and germination are variable. The capability for regrowth from root parts makes L. vulgaris a difficult weed to eradicate and limits the efficacy of cultural control methods. The possibilities for chemical control are limited due to resistance to common herbicides. Biological control projects conducted during the past 50 yr have been partly successful and are on-going. Key words:Linaria vulgaris, toadflax, Scrophulariaceae, weed biology, control, review