Novel morphological structures in frogs: vocal sac diversity and evolution in Microhylidae (Amphibia: Anura)

Vocal sacs are present in most species of frogs and are the product of the interaction of three elements: the gular skin, the superficial submandibular musculature and an internal mucosa derived from the buccal floor. In this paper, we surveyed the structural diversity in the vocal sac of microhylids and related families in 109 exemplar species, including 11 of the 13 currently recognized subfamilies. We defined five characters related to anatomical and histological properties of the m. interhyoideus, as well as the relationship of this muscle and the vocal sac internal mucosa. We describe a vocal sac configuration characterized by highly abundant elastic fibres in association with muscle fibres, a very unusual structure in animal tissues. We discuss the evolution of novel structures in a phylogenetic context and identify new synapomorphies for Microhylidae and internal clades. Furthermore, we comment on the functional implications that these features have in vocal sac inflation.