A Total Flow Perspective of Atmospheric Mass and Angular Momentum Circulations: Boreal Winter Mean State

This paper reports a comprehensive diagnostic analysis of mass and angular momentum (AM) circulations and their budgets in boreal winter using the 32-yr daily NCEP–Department of Energy (DOE) reanalysis (1979–2010). The diagnosis is performed using instantaneous total flows before taking time and zonal average without decomposition of time mean and transient flows and separation of zonal mean and wavy flows. The analysis reveals that embedded in a broad hemispheric thermally direct meridional mass circulation in each hemisphere are three distinct but interconnected thermally direct meridional cells. They are the tropical Hadley cell, the stratospheric cell, and the extratropical zonally asymmetric Hadley cell. The tropical Hadley cell corresponds to the Hadley cell of the classic three-cell model whereas the extratropical Hadley cell and the stratospheric cell correspond to the eddy-driven extratropical residual circulation. The joint consideration of meridional mass and AM circulations helps to substantiate Hadley’s original view that the hemispheric-wide thermally direct meridional circulation can have broad surface easterly in the tropics and westerly in the extratropics. Because the mass circulation cannot have a net divergence anywhere in long time mean and the earth’s AM decreases toward the poles, the companion AM transport in the equatorward cold air branch inevitably has to be divergent. The downward transfer of westerly AM to the cold air branch by the pressure torque associated with westward tilted baroclinic waves dominates such divergence in the extratropics, explaining the prevailing surface westerly there. In the tropics and polar region where the meridional circulation is nearly zonally symmetric, the dominance of this divergence results in a surface easterly there.