Evaluation of surface ponding and runoff generation in a seasonally frozen drained agricultural field

Surface runoff is often poorly quantified in hydrologic studies of subsurface drained fields, as it is a relatively minor component of the water balance and difficult to measure in large fields. However, conservation practices that seek to mitigate pollutant transport through subsurface drainage may increase surface runoff, and therefore it needs to be better understood. The goal of this study was to determine the frequency and extent of occurrence of surface ponding and runoff, and to understand their generation processes in a seasonally frozen, subsurface drained agricultural field in eastern Indiana. Three different methods were used. Surface ponding was monitored with a time-lapse camera at the edge of the field for three years. A water table threshold for surface ponding was determined using photo evidence of ponding together with water table depth measurements and used to estimate ponding. The DRAINMOD hydrologic model was calibrated and validated by comparing model predictions of subsurface drainage and water table depth with 10 years of field observations and used to predict surface ponding and runoff. The simulation results indicated that surface runoff represented 1–10% of annual precipitation, while subsurface drainage represented between 26 and 45%. On average, 45% of simulated ponding occurred during the cold season (December-March) indicating the importance of soil freezing and snow accumulation. However, during parts of the cold season, DRAINMOD simulations of snow accumulation and melt were poor, resulting in drain flow under-prediction and runoff over-prediction during these periods. Water table depth measurements above the defined threshold provided a simple alternate for prediction of saturation excess ponding events in the absence of direct measurements. Results from both simulations and observations indicated that all of the ponding events in this location were generated by saturation excess rather than infiltration excess processes.