Nanostructured thin-film tungsten trioxide photoanodes for solar water and sea-water splitting

About 3 μm thick tungsten trioxide film electrodes consisting of partly sintered, 40-80 nm in diameter, particles deposited on conducting glass substrates exhibit high photon-to-current conversion efficiencies for the photooxidation of water, exceeding 70% at 400 nm. This is facilitated by a ca. 40% film porosity resulting in high contact area with the electrolyte. It is shown that the activity of the WO 3 electrodes towards photooxidation of water is enhanced by addition of even small amounts of halide (Cl - , Br - ) ions to the acidic electrolyte. Photoelectrolysis experiments performed either in acidic electrolytes containing chloride or bromide anions or in a 0.5 M NaCl solution, under simulated 1.5 AM solar illumination, demonstrated long term stability of the photocurrents. Oxygen remains the main product of the photoanodic reaction even in a 0.5 M NaCl solution, a composition close to the sea water, with chlorine accounting for ca. 20% of current efficiency.