Lignin-enriched tricalcium phosphate/sodium alginate 3D scaffolds for application in bone tissue regeneration

The bone is a connective, vascularized, and mineralized tissue that confers protection to organs, and participates in the support and locomotion of the human body, maintenance of homeostasis, as well as in hematopoiesis. However, throughout the lifetime, bone defects may arise due to traumas (mechanical fractures), diseases, and/or aging, which when too extensive compromise the ability of the bone to self-regenerate. To surpass such clinical situation, different therapeutic approaches have been pursued. Rapid prototyping techniques using composite materials (consisting of ceramics and polymers) have been used to produce customized 3D structures with osteoinductive and osteoconductive properties. In order to reinforce the mechanical and osteogenic properties of these 3D structures, herein, a new 3D scaffold was produced through the layer-by-layer deposition of a tricalcium phosphate (TCP), sodium alginate (SA), and lignin (LG) mixture using the Fab@Home 3D-Plotter. Three different TCP/LG/SA formulations, LG/SA ratio 1:3, 1:2, or 1:1, were produced and subsequently evaluated to determine their suitability for bone regeneration. The physicochemical assays demonstrated that the LG inclusion improved the mechanical resistance of the scaffolds, particularly in the 1:2 ratio, since a 15 % increase in the mechanical strength was observed. Moreover, all TCP/LG/SA formulations showed an enhanced wettability and maintained their capacity to promote the osteoblasts' adhesion and proliferation as well as their bioactivity (formation of hydroxyapatite crystals). Such results support the LG inclusion and application in the development of 3D scaffolds aimed for bone regeneration.