Determinants and within-person variability of urinary Cadmium concentrations among women in Northern California

BACKGROUND: Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic metal associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Urinary Cd (U-Cd) concentration is considered a biomarker of long-term exposure. OBJECTIVES: Our objectives were to evaluate the within-person correlation among repeat samples and to identify predictors of U-Cd concentrations. METHODS: U-Cd concentrations (micrograms per liter) were measured in 24-hr urine samples collected from 296 women enrolled in the California Teachers Study in 2000 and a second 24-hr sample collected 3-9 months later from 141 of the participants. Lifestyle and sociodemographic characteristics were obtained via questionnaires. The Total Diet Study database was used to quantify dietary cadmium intake based on a food frequency questionnaire. We estimated environmental cadmium emissions near participants' residences using a geographic information system. RESULTS: The geometric mean U-Cd concentration was 0.27 [micro]g/L and the range was 0.1-3.6 [micro]g/L. The intraclass correlation among repeat samples from an individual was 0.50. The use of a single 24-hr urine specimen to characterize Cd exposure in a case-control study would result in an observed odds ratio of 1.4 for a true odds ratio of 2.0. U-Cd concentration increased with creatinine, age, and lifetime pack-years of smoking among ever smokers or lifetime intensity-years of passive smoking among nonsmokers, whereas it decreased with greater alcohol consumption and number of previous pregnancies. These factors explained 42-44% of the variability in U-Cd concentrations. CONCLUSION: U-Cd levels varied with several individual characteristics, and a single measurement of U-Cd in a 24-hr sample did not accurately reflect medium- to long-term body burden. KEY WORDS: cadmium, biomarkers, diet, exposure science, GIS. Environ Health Perspect 121:643-649 (2013). http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205524 [Online 3 April 2013]
Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic, bioaccumulating, and somewhat persistent metal released into the environment during mining operations and industrial processes and as a by-product of oil combustion [Agency for Toxic [...]