Highly crystalline MAPbI3 perovskite grain formation by irreversible poor-solvent diffusion aggregation, for efficient solar cell fabrication

Energy efficient synthesis providing high quality crystalline thin films are highly desired in many applications. Here we devise a non-toxic solvent approach for production of highly crystalline MAPbI3 perovskite by exploiting diffusion aggregation processes. Isopropanol solution based methylammonium lead triiodide (MAPbI3) is used in this context, where the crystal growth initiation starts in an unstable suspension far from equilibrium and the subsequent crystallization is driven by the solubility parameters. The crystal formation is monitored by scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM), observing small crystallization centers growing as time evolves to large grains with high crystal purity. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) in STEM mode revealed a Pb rich core-shell structure in newly formed grains. Nano-beam Electron Diffraction (NBED) scan defined PbI2 crystallites in the Pb rich shell with a single crystal MAPbI3 core in newly formed grains. After a week stirring, the same aggregated suspension exhibited grains with only single crystal MAPbI3 structure. The NBED analysis shows a kinetically slow transition from a core shell structure to a single crystal grain. This research presents an impactful insight on the factors that may cause sub-stoichiometric grain boundary effects which can influence the solar cell performance. In addition, the structure, morphology and optical properties of the perovskite grains have been presented. A powder of highly crystalline particles was subsequently prepared by evaporation of the solvent in a low-vacuum oven. Thin film MAPbI3 solar cells were fabricated by dissolving the powder and applying it in a classical fabrication route. The MAPbI3 solar cells gave a champion efficiency of 20% (19.9%) and an average efficiency at approximately 17% with low hysteresis effects. Here a strategy to manufacture the material structure without toxic solvents is highlighted. The single-crystal growth devised here opens both for