Detecting glaucoma from multi-modal data using probabilistic deep learning

OBJECTIVE: To assess the accuracy of probabilistic deep learning models to discriminate normal eyes and eyes with glaucoma from fundus photographs and visual fields. DESIGN: Algorithm development for discriminating normal and glaucoma eyes using data from multicenter, cross-sectional, case-control study. SUBJECTS AND PARTICIPANTS: Fundus photograph and visual field data from 1,655 eyes of 929 normal and glaucoma subjects to develop and test deep learning models and an independent group of 196 eyes of 98 normal and glaucoma patients to validate deep learning models. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Accuracy and area under the receiver-operating characteristic curve (AUC). METHODS: Fundus photographs and OCT images were carefully examined by clinicians to identify glaucomatous optic neuropathy (GON). When GON was detected by the reader, the finding was further evaluated by another clinician. Three probabilistic deep convolutional neural network (CNN) models were developed using 1,655 fundus photographs, 1,655 visual fields, and 1,655 pairs of fundus photographs and visual fields collected from Compass instruments. Deep learning models were trained and tested using 80% of fundus photographs and visual fields for training set and 20% of the data for testing set. Models were further validated using an independent validation dataset. The performance of the probabilistic deep learning model was compared with that of the corresponding deterministic CNN model. RESULTS: The AUC of the deep learning model in detecting glaucoma from fundus photographs, visual fields, and combined modalities using development dataset were 0.90 (95% confidence interval: 0.89-0.92), 0.89 (0.88-0.91), and 0.94 (0.92-0.96), respectively. The AUC of the deep learning model in detecting glaucoma from fundus photographs, visual fields, and both modalities using the independent validation dataset were 0.94 (0.92-0.95), 0.98 (0.98-0.99), and 0.98 (0.98-0.99), respectively. The AUC of the deep learning model in det