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Focuses on the three doubt-belief theory of inquiry. Psychology of inquiry; Requirements for the genuineness of doubt based from Charles Sanders Peirce's writings on doubt and belief; Analysis of feigned heistancy.

This paper argues that the notoriously disordered and contradictory nature of Pareto's last and greatest work, the Trattato, is largely attributable to the place he was cast in the development of European social thought. Pareto set out to construct a rationalist-positivist model in the tradition of Bentham and Comte. But his acquaintanceship with a rising intellectual tradition, generally associated with the name of Nietzsche, confronted him with psychological and individualist themes which both revealed how little human action is governed by reason, and put in question the hypothetico-deductive model of Western science and its belief in objective truth. Pareto's resulting intellectual uprootedness translated itself into his last work. This work gained the virtue of presenting an original perspective on social behaviour, but suffered at the same time from not finding a methodology appropriate to its new interests. This paper also aims to show the centrality of Nietzsche's influence on Pareto, an influence almost completely neglected in the secondary literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents information of various books and journals related to psychology. The paper "Notes on the psychotherapy of infantile autism" by Micheal Fordham is an account of his work and research with autism in children. "Psicologia della lettura" by Mario Trevi is a thought-provoking paper, which presents some intriguing comparisons between reading and play. The paper "Working with a family in a Child Guidance setting" by P. Parsloe and D. Howell presents therapeutic work of psychiatrist and psychiatric social worker on psychotherapy of closely interdependent immature people.

This research paper presents a case history of a man in his late twenties, and analyzes the case psychologically. The man, from his late teens had a difficulty in relating to women. He was a bright scholar and on leaving the university started a career in the diplomatic sphere, furthered this with considerable success during his war service, and found himself returned to civil life with good prospects and considerable status at the age of twenty-five. He talked of his fear of returning to his work and his shame at having had a breakdown. By analyzing the dreams of this patient, this paper focuses upon the significance of the latent homosexual orientation of symptom-formation, its influence upon the transference, and in particular on the part it plays in the therapeutic process.

This paper seeks to assess the utility of the transactional model of individual stress. According to the logic of the model, whether persons manifest stress is a multiplicative function of both situational and individual characteristics. The paper briefly discusses possible advantages of the perspective over other frames of reference. Then it describes a pilot study designed to determine whether hypotheses based on the transactional model could be supported empirically. Utilizing interview data from a small probability sample of all adults in the state of Missouri, scales were constructed by an improved method of item analysis for use as indicators of variations in stress and the situational and individual factors. Comparing stress scores by situational and individual variables produced results indicative of a multiplicative relationship and thus supportive of theories derived from the transactional perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the name suggests, social-psychology is a bastard field. It consists of such a variety of peoples doing so many different things in different ways, that it defies definition—at least for me. In spite of the neat delineations which are made in textbooks and the scholarly historical treatments which appear in encyclopediae and symposia, I find it difficult to grasp a concept of "social-psychology" which is anything more than the operational definition: "Social psychology is what people who call themselves social-psychologists, do." That is not much help, but it is all we have got. I mention my own confusion in this matter, not with the aim of confusing others, but by way of explanation: some of the issues I will touch upon in this paper may infringe upon what readers consider to be other areas of sociology. I regret such territorial invasions. But in my own quest for understanding why people act as they do, I have increasingly found that the traditional "fields" in the discipline and the traditional courses in the catalogue do not provide appropriate categories with which I can explain to colleagues and students what it is I am discovering. Having said all of this, let us get down to business. It is a decade since Dennis Wrong published the paper in which he challenged "The oversocialized conception of man in modern society" (1961). Reacting to a determinism which pervaded the social sciences and which seemed to be seeping into popular currency, Wrong asked if man were in fact as constrained by a monolithic culture as we social scientists would have it. A few years later Harold Garfinkel referred more bluntly to the models of men constructed by the various social sciences: he called them "judgmental dopes." The cultural dope and the psychological dope are, respectively, the man in the sociologist's society and the man in the psychologist's society (1967:67-68). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to outline and examine a few basic functions which ideology performs for the individual and for society. In order to progress in this direction, it might help to agree on some basic conceptual definitions. To begin with, some effort must be made to arrive at a satisfactory definition of ideology, since that term occupies a rather central place in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ordinarily an anniversary occasions the reification of an artificial period. In this case however, there is a certain juncture in the history of the point of view which makes of the past quarter-century something worthy of consideration for symbolic interactionism as well as for our celebration of the founding of the Midwest Sociological Society. The year 1937 lies virtually in the middle of a four-year period which saw the publication of Mind, Self, and Society, Movements of Thought in the Nineteenth Century, and The Philosophy of the Act. It would represent the greatest naiveté to suggest that thus the year 1937 represented the introduction of symbolic interactionism. We are all aware of the long development: from James, Baldwin, and Cooley to Thomas, Faris, Dewey, Blumer, and Young. Even the Tardean imitation and suggestion which underlay Ross's Social Psychology contributed a good deal ordinarily not credited to him in the development of interaction theory. Nor is it the fact that Mead represents the fullest development of the orientation that makes so significant the posthumous publication of his works (for which we may conveniently take 1937 as an anchoring point). Mead's ideas had been known for a very long time. He had taught University of Chicago students from 1893 to 1931. His notions were bruited about in classes and seminars wherever there were professors conducting them who had studied at the University of Chicago—not least in the great heartland included in the Mid-west of our Society. Some of Mead's students had published their versions of his ideas or quotations from some of his philosophical papers—Kimbali Young's Source Book in Social Psychology of a decade earlier contained a paper by Mead, and his Social Psychology bore the strong imprint of Meadian interactionism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Symbolic interaction theory as derived mainly from the work of George Herbert Mead views the self-concept as a structure of attitudes which arises in social experience and organizes the individual's perception of his social milieu. Recently, tests based upon this symbolic interaction orientation have been developed for the elicitation of self attitudes. One such test frequently used is the Twenty Statements Test (TST) constructed by Manford Kuhn and Thomas McPartland. The TST attempts to ascertain the specific statements respondents use to identify themselves to themselves. The applicability of the TST to problems of self theory is indicated by the rather wide use which has been made of the instrument. Investigations using the TST have focused upon the following: self-concept and social position; a self-concept and behavior; and the self-concept and attitudes toward other social objects. While TST results have been of substantive interest, little attention has been given to the methodological issues involved in the instrument and its use. For example, little is known concerning the validity and reliability of the test and its scoring procedures. If substantive assertions based upon TST results are to be considered as sound, judicious concern should be directed toward basic methodological issues. It is the purpose of this paper to consider empirically one methodological aspect of the TST. The focus is upon the test format itself. The question is posed: Do variations in the TST format produce variations in individuals' response patterns? Specifically, does the length of the test influence the number and the nature of statements made by respondents? This paper is directed toward answering this question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present report deals with the validity of the Shipley-Hartford Retreat Scale as a brief paper-and-pencil measure of current intellectual functioning. Although the Shipley-Hartford scale was devised primarily as a scale to reflect intellectual deficit, and its subsequent evaluation has indicated limited utility as a measure of deterioration, several investigators have been interested in its usefulness as a measure of functioning intelligence. This paper presents a table that summarizes some relationships between various brief measures of intelligence and the Wechsler Bellevue Scales.

In recent years a substantial body of research findings (based almost solely on responses to the Dilemmas-of-Choice instrument as the measure of risk), commonly referred to as the "risky shift" phenomenon, has suggested that groups take greater risks than individuals. This interpretation, if generalizable. would replace the commonly held belief that groups make decisions that are more conservative than. or the average of, individual decisions. This paper examines, empirically and analytically, some major limitations of the generalizability of the risky shift phenomenon. The major concerns of this paper are analysis of (1) the conventional method of statistically analyzing the data generated in risky shift studies, and (2) the measure of risk almost universally used by investigators of the risky shift phenomenon. In order to accomplish this task several experiments were designed. The conventional statistic used in the risky shift literature is analyzed and inferences appropriate to it are explored. The conventional test supports the risky shift findings. A revised measurement scale and alternative statistical testing procedures are discussed. The revised scale permits a continuum of response rather than the discrete choices permitted with the Dilemmas-of-Choice instrument. Results using the alternative methods of statistical analysis and the revised scale are presented. These results do not support the previous findings that groups accept a level of risk significantly greater than that acceptable to the average group member deciding alone. These findings strongly suggest that generalization of the risky shift phenomenon may be limited to individuals and groups using the Dilemmas-of-Choice instrument as the measure of risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the text of a paper given by psychologist R.B. Buzzard to the Occupational Psychology Section of the British Psychological Society on July 1, 1966, which deals with general practice. The National Institute of Industrial Psychology was founded 45 years ago with the object of fostering the application of psychological and physiological principles to the problems of working life. Together with the Medical Research Council's Industrial Fatigue Research Board, later its Industrial Health Research Board, with which it was closely associated in the twenties, it pioneered the way for investigations in this field. After the war, the few places in which research in industrial psychology had previously been carried on were surrounded by research groups in the fighting services, in government departments and ministries, in operational research groups in big industries, in university departments and laboratories and in technical colleges. But the groups which were concerned especially with industrial psychology have decided to examine particular aspects of the subject for intensive study. If one is to apply their results to the problems of working life in practice, one has to learn how the bits work when put together.

The present paper presents current theorizing in psycholinguistics which points up the inadequacy of the notion that verbalisms (nonsensory based words) are meaningless and detrimental to conceptual thinking in the blind. The failure to acknowledge the word-word nature of meaning is cited as the significant flaw in the development of the verbalism construct. A review of the literature indicates some of the methodological problems in research on verbalism. Suggestions for future research on the phenomenon are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents views of Marianne Jacoby, a psychologist, on a research paper by E.F. Edinger, a psychologist published in a 1960 issue of "Journal of Analytical Psychology." The way in which Edinger states his ideas presupposes their general acceptance. Concepts of ego-self identity, ego-self separation and ego-self unity are brought in a schema which is posited rather than explained. Instead of discussing the complex processes involved in these concepts, Edinger has only put forward conclusions.

The history of psychology has seen a shift from Sigmund Freud's psycho-analysis to C.G. Jung's analytical psychology. The emphasis laid on the personal has increasingly shifted to the transpersonal aspect. In contrast to the accentuation of the temporal and personal, Jung discovered the crucial importance of the timeless and transpersonal factors in the psyche-the archetypes-that determine man's development. This research paper combines the aspects of the personal and the transpersonal, the temporal-genetic and the timeless, which have grown too far apart, in an altered picture of man and his development.

Theories of symbolic interaction and ethnomethodology, assume that everyone undertakes a complex process of construction of reality, including self-identity, in interaction with significant others. Utilizing insights into variations in identity reformulation in marriage obtained from a study of American metropolitan women, this paper concentrates on variations of identity reformulation among widows. The major hypothesis guiding the discussion is that the higher the education of the woman, as measured by formal schooling, the more she is likely to experience and undertake identity reformulation in marriage and in widowhood. The less education a woman has, the less she will be consciously affected in her identity formulation by these events. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports an exploration of the relationship between members' role performance and the benefits they receive from their organizations. The general relationship is interpreted in the context of a "social exchange model" for voluntary associations. Data for the analysis pertain to members of four voluntary farm organizations: Farm Bureau, Farmers Union, National Farmers Organization, and Grange. The data were obtained in a state-wide survey of Wisconsin farm operators in 1965. In general, the data show a moderate relationship, in a positive direction, between benefits and role performance. The benefits tend to differ in the magnitude and, in some instances, in the direction of their relationships to such performance. The findings indicate the importance of taking into account magnitude and direction of relationship, as well as interaction among the benefits and among costs, in order to devise a viable social exchange model of cost benefit relations for voluntary associations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper, then, is to bring organizational analysis to bear upon the problem of competition for control over goals, means, and organizationally relevant behavior. Further, emphasis is placed upon one type of strategy by which such competition has been managed, i.e., formal coaptation (See Selznick, 1949) and, additionally, some consequences of that strategy. The unit for analysis is the Christian Family Movement (CFM), a Midwest based, lay apostolic, action organization whose leaders claim the allegiance of some 60,000 married couples in fifty-five countries. For some time now CFM has been experiencing the pains of organizational transition, and its history reflects the consequences of two groups in competition for control over the organization's goals and means. One consequence is somewhat of a two-dimensional authority structure, each dimension of which is felt to be the only legitimate one from the standpoint of its representatives. Other consequences have to do with policy-development and the achievement of formally stated goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Students of self conceptions have examined a variety of research problems using responses to the question "Who Am I?" Only in the initial report of Kuhn and McPartland is attention given to the relationships among the responses made to this question. They present data showing an ordering of responses which they believe to be "… a reflection of the make-up of the self conception." The present paper reports research stemming from a re-examination of the posited order among responses to the question "Who Am I?" Through content analysis, Kuhn and McPartland classified responses to this question into two categories: "consensual" and "subconsensual." Responses classified as "consensual" were those "… statements which refer to groups and classes whose limits and conditions of membership are matters of common knowledge." Responses classified as "subconsensual" were those statements "… which refer to groups, classes, attributes, traits, or any other matters which would require interpretation by the respondent to be precise or to place him relative to other people." Kuhn and McPartland stated that "… respondents tended to exhaust all of the consensual references they would make before they made (if at all) any subconsensual ones; that is, having once begun to make subconsensual references they tended to make no more consensual references (if indeed they had made any at all)." Further, this ordering of consensual and subconsensual responses is reported to take the form of an ordinal scale when submitted to Guttman's scalogram analysis technique. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we attempt to do the following with respect to the symbolic interactionist approach to social psychological phenomena: (1) to add to its relatively meager empirical base; (2) to develop a neglected aspect of the position, namely, the time dimension; and (3) to contribute to both the replication and the extension of the limited systematic research which has used this particular framework to focus on the key concept of self. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A number of questions have been recently raised or re-raised with respect to the status and intended function in sociology of the methodological device known as the "type." Martindale's summary of the historical and contemporary uses to which the typology has been put as well as his formulation of the issues connected with such use permits the economy of moving directly into a specification of the problems considered in this paper, and the proposed solutions. The present effort is directed primarily at providing one solution to the often raised problem of "the relation between the idealization involved in the type and the empirical reality," although less pressing issues are also treated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most promising efforts to operationalize the concept of the "self" has been that of the late Professor Manford H. Kuhn and his students. This approach has employed the "Twenty-Statements Test," or TST, an open-ended instrument which is designed to elicit the respondent's "spontaneous" self-definitions in their order of salience. Since its first publication in 1954, the TST has been used in a variety of studies? However, previous studies of the "self" have been conducted on restricted population samples, and little is known about the self-definitions held by a general population. The present paper describes the TST responses of a representative sample of the general adult population of Iowa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The general theory of symbolic interaction, specifically self theory, is focused upon the importance of language as an instrument of definition and communication. People are seen as responding not directly to a resistant outer reality but to meanings of objects which are defined within a cultural system and social organization. G. H. Mead, in his discussion of the way persons develop self concepts and the accompanying ability to take roles effectively, speaks of the degree to which persons develop a "general other." This general other is an organized structure of attitudes believed to be common to all and is defined in terms of a universe of discourse growing out of the symbolic interaction of a community of individuals. Replies to the Twenty Statements Test, described by Kuhn and McPartland, display this quality. Self-identifying statements which people make fall along a rough spectrum of reference which can be broken up in various ways. The distinction which Kuhn and McPartland have reported is between what they call consensual and nonconsensual statements. Consensual statements are defined as those statements which would be generally understood by persons in the larger society without explanation. Nonconsensual statements are defined as those requiring interpretation before their social relevance can be assessed. The consensual statement is language behavior directed to the general other, while the nonconsensual statement is language directed to a more limited audience. H. S. Sullivan's contribution in developing the notion of the "significant other" consists in accounting for the fact that persons often do not seem to internalize standards and norms from the whole society but from segments of it on some selective basis. In this paper, the number of consensual statements made in response to the Twenty Statements Test will be called the locus score. Respondents are assigned to "high" and "low" locus categories as they make more or less than the median number of consensual statements. Expanding upon this frame of reference, it seems reasonable to propose that the locus quality found in self-conceptions of a given person is also characteristic of his conceptions of other objects. This hypothesis is based on the assumption that the self is the core of a set of interrelated attitudes, and that the level of reference employed by the respondent in his attitudes toward the self would therefore be applicable to other attitudes as well. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this paper are to propose a new concept for use in attitude studies; to explain one way in which this concept has been operationalized; to suggest an hypothesis for use in further studies of this concept; and to present some preliminary research findings concerning this hypothesis. Social scientists have long been interested in differences and similarities between people holding "liberal" and "conservative" attitudes toward various issues and problems of the day. Countless numbers of research studies have been conducted in this area. Perhaps most interesting among these studies have been several attempts to determine whether people tend to have a general liberal-conservative orientation, or whether we must expect their attitudes to vary in different situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper Dr. Miles, Director of the Institute, continues the discussion of fatigue from a more psychological point of view. He indicates some of the less obvious directions in which it causes economic loss ; especially the fatigue due to changes in methods of payment or of work, the fatigue of the firm's outside representatives, and, finally, the mental fatigue of executives and research workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the speech utterance and its determinants. In order to measure the word length of the individual phrases sandwiched between pauses, visual transformations of speech have to be obtained, transferring the sound impulses to paper, using a pen-recorder and the visual tracings have to be synchronised with the verbal content of the records. The relevance of level of intellectual activity to phrase length is also exemplified by the fact that the levelling influence of learning on individual differences shows itself more clearly in the descriptions than in the summaries.

This paper is a report on the results of a survey on electrodermal recording procedures. A detailed questionnaire was sent to more than two hundred members of the Psychophysiological Society. The results indicate a wide disagreement among investigators in most phases of the recording process. This indicates a lack of standardization in one of the most used of physiological measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports two experiments testing the hypotheses that the rate and degree of verbal conditioning are inversely related to the personality variables of rigidity and extraversion, these predictions being based on theoretical formulations by psychologists, R.B. Cattell and H.J. Eysenck, respectively. The most striking finding was that the conditioning procedures did not induce reliable, i.e. repeatable, changes in performance. This result which precluded an adequate test of the hypotheses under investigation is in marked contrast to previous studies using this and other methods of conditioning, and requires explanation.

The article informs that self-report techniques have been utilized to measure personality attributes since R.S. Woodworth's "Personality Inventory." The traditional self-report methodology requires the S to respond to a series of statements by indicating whether they are true or false when applied to himself, and his responses are scored by a key developed after an item analysis of the responses given by variously defined criterion groups. The technique for assessing self descriptions with which this paper is concerned lies somewhere between the above two methods of self-report, and consists of having subjects complete three sentence stems by selecting adjectives to describe their feelings, their study or work habits, and their social reaction pattern.

This article discusses context effects in judgment as a function of experience. Since many of the classical phenomena of psychophysics have been found in all areas of judgment, there is every reason to assume their existence in the processes of clinical judgment and to hope that their further investigation here will lead to the refinement and improvement of clinical prediction. This paper is concerned with those shifts or distortions in judgment which can be produced by altering the context within which the stimulus appears.

The purpose of this paper is to focus attention on the problems of report writing and to attempt to increase interest in the experimental study of clinical reports. With these objectives, the approaches to the improvement of clinical writing which have already been used will be reviewed. In the conduct of his diagnostic duties the clinical psychologist invests a substantial portion of his time in the preparation of psychological reports. Whether such investment of time, and indeed whether the time spent in diagnostic testing is justified, depends upon the effectiveness with which the psychologist is able to communicate his findings.

The article discusses individual bias in psychological reports. There has been considerable study of the relationship between the examiner and subject during conventional test administration and of the influence of the examiner upon the subject's responses in a variety of testing situations. Individual differences in examiners' processing data secured from the use of projective techniques have also been studied and reports are beginning to appear about the influence of the personality of the examiner on his reports about subjects. The present paper is a report of a study designed to examine the systematic variation in the content of psychologists' reports and their individual biases. The subjects were three graduate students in psychology who were serving their internship-training year at Duke Hospital a few years ago.

This article discusses frustration, anger and hostility states. The purpose of this paper is to propose a classification system descriptive of a group of pathological states characterized by acute or chronic frustration-anger-tension-aggression reactions. In contrast with the anxiety-tension states which have been well described in the literature, relatively little attention has been given to behavior reactions characterized by anger. These anger reactions range from infantile rage reactions responding to restriction of movement, through childhood temper tantrums to adult rage reactions of homicidal degree.

This article focuses on quantification on the Eight Card Redrawing Test (8CRT). The 8CRT is an attempt to answer this problem of quantification. The 8CRT consists of eight interrelated drawings, each a development of the immediately preceding one. Transparent paper is used so that the subject sees the immediately preceding figure as he draws over it. In this way change can be observed on a continuum. Group administration is just as effective as is an individual administration and does not decrease the projective nature of the test.

This article focuses on an alternate form of the Series Completion test. The Series Completion test, requires that the subject form abstractions from visually presented problems and use these abstractions to complete a series. Since practice effect on this test may play a role in repeated testing, as, for example, in follow up studies of electro-convulsive. shock or prefrontal lobotomy in which several testings may be given-an alternate form has been developed, by use of which it is hoped to tap the same abilities now measured by Series Completion I. The purpose of this paper is to describe the development of the alternate form, Series Completion II, and to present tentative norms for the evaluation of results.

The article presents a comparative evaluation of the Wechsler-Bellevue mental deterioration index for various adult groups. In recent articles the value of the Wechsler Mental Deterioration Index (MDI) in screening patients with brain damage from normal patients has been considered. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the MDI further as a tool for differential diagnosis; that is, to determine whether a significant loss in this index is related solely to deterioration such as is found in subjects who have had organic brain injury or damage. The MDI's for the following seven groups of subjects were compared: brain injured, applicants for vocational counseling with psychoneurotic diagnoses, and with other than psychoneurotic diagnoses, mental hygiene clinic patients diagnosed as anxiety tension state, mental hygiene and hospital patients diagnosed as schizophrenic, and two groups of normals.

This article focuses on a proposed system for scoring Thermatic Apperception Test (TAT). This paper is an attempt to outline a similar type of objective scoring to be used as a frame of reference for interpreting the TAT. This system is based on first, scaling each story for a certain type of predominant mood, chief worry, press, and ending; second, computing frequency of each of the scales; third, interpreting the meaning of the frequencies; and finally, over-all qualitative interpretation. A problem peculiar to TAT scoring and interpretation has been the distinction between manifest content and what is symbolic implication, or latent content.

This paper develops the hypothesis that hierarchical structure and external control in organizations are antecedent variables leading to low achievement, low creativity, and high aggression. An intervening variables of belief systems is postulated and a consistency motivational hypothesis is suggested. Data supportive of the hypothesis is reviewed and implications are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper describes a normative-descriptive strategy for cognitive research. In a set of illustrative experiments based on models from physics, subjects were asked to judge the positions and weights necessary to maintain equilibrium in mechanical displays of varying complexity. Whenever possible subjects' judgments were accounted for through the appropriate normative models; otherwise descriptive models were generated from the normative models and from the results of the other experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present paper is concerned with the development of efficient signs or symbols for use in visual communication. In particular, it describes and illustrates a technique for generating such signs, and presents a series of experiments undertaken to evaluate this technique. Although the application of these methods was limited to a specialized set of concepts (military intelligence terms), and the test experiments for signs developed were highly selective, it was believed that the principles involved have implications for several rather divergent areas of psychology which share an interest in language and communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes and integrates research concerned with a long-neglected topic in psychology: the relationship between conscious goals and intentions and task performance. The basic premise of this research is that an individual's conscious ideas regulate his actions. Studies are cited demonstrating that: (1) hard goals produce a higher level of performance (output) than easy goals; (2) specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than a goal of "do your best"; and (3) behavioral intentions regulate choice behavior. The theory also views goals and intentions as mediators of the effects of incentives on task performance. Evidence is presented supporting the view that monetary incentives, time limits, and knowledge of results do not affect performance level independently of the individual's goals and intentions. A theoretical analysis supports the same view with respect to three other incentives: participation, competition, and praise and re- proof. Finally, behavioral intentions were found to mediate the effects of money and "verbal reinforcement" on choice behavior. It is concluded that any adequate theory of task motivation must take account of the individual's conscious goals and intentions. The applied implications of the theory are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Part I of this paper is a review of the literature concerning the effects of culture on cognition. The relevance of these studies to interpersonal relations in international organizations is explored. A number of broad hypotheses are suggested. At a more specific level three hypotheses are presented. In the case of high-status visitors working in a low-status culture: (1), the visitor's stereotype of the hosts will be negative; (2) the visitor's stereotype of the host culture will be more negative than the stereotype of members of the visitor's culture who have not come into face-to-face relationships with the host culture; and (3) the stereotype of the hosts toward the visitors will be negative, but will also reflect the presumed higher competence of the visitors. Part II reports a study which supports these hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper argues that organizational researchers should study triads and the process of coalition formation more intensely since triads contain several organizational properties that are not found in smaller groups. A triad task is proposed that offsets many shortcomings of previous tasks used to study three person groups. Procedural variations and psychological properties of the task are discussed as are reformulations of traditional issues in triad theory that seem feasible given the properties of the triad task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article analyzes the responses of business executives and mental hospital patients on the ideological survey. This study investigates ideological composition in institutionalized psychiatric patients characterized by vocational inadaptability and general existential failure. Empirical experience indicate that inadaptable people tend to subscribe to defensive ideologies rationalizing their failures. In particular, the Rand-Branden position postulates an ideological syndrome characteristic of "The Disabled Man" as cited in an earlier paper describing the rationale of construction of "The Ideological Survey."

The article informs that this paper describes an objective technique for the routine clerical determination of degree of psychopathology to be inferred from MMPI profiles independent of the type of pathology reflected. The procedures employed in this study utilized the intuitive judgments off expert MMPI clinicians as the basis for deriving a clerical method to approximate clinicians' ratings. In order to quantify the concept "degree of psychopathology", two skilled MMPI clinicians Q-sorted 125 male and 125 female profiles on this dimension. Since inter-judge reliability was .85 for each sample, the judgments were pooled and scores on each MMPI scale were correlated with this composite sort.

The article discusses a method of weighting attitude scale items from subject responses. The most widely used technique for studying attitudes is the "rating scale" method. The scale usually consists of a group of statements which have been assigned differential weights. The subject indicates which statements he endorses and his final score may be the mean, median, or sum of weights for the endorsed statements. The purpose of this paper is to present a method of weighting attitude scale items from the responses of subjects. An attitude scale of 45 statements was constructed and administered to 586 students who were all freshmen at the University of South Carolina. Each statement was weighted according to a system based on the number of times it was endorsed by members of this group.

The following four papers are modified versions of papers delivered in a symposium titled "The Role of Financial Compensation in Managerial Motivation" held during the Spring, 1965 meetings of the Midwestern Psychological Association. Dunnette presents an instrumental model of managerial motivation and discusses its implications for research on the motivational effects of compensation. He also reviews research related to Preferences (motives) most often found to be salient for managers. Lawler summarizes previous research on the effects of secret salary policies on manager satisfaction and presents results of another recent study showing that policies of pay secrecy have several costs not generally recognized. Secrecy apparently blurs managers' perceptions of what others earn; they overestimate the salaries of peers and of subordinates and this can lead to greater pay dissatisfaction and the belief that job performance is rather unimportant in determining pay. Weick reviews the psychological literature bearing on the effects of insufficient rewards on the intensity of effort. He reviews evidence in support of the relationship, postulates several properties of experimental procedures to explain the effects, and suggests that propositions from frustration or cue-utilization theory may afford the most parsimonious explanation of the relationship. Finally, Opsahl provides an overview of current, knowledge about managerial compensation and its effect on managerial job behavior, and suggests areas in need of further intensive research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents comments of the author on research paper "Critical Notice of the Objective Psyche," by J. Layard, published in a 1960 issue of "Journal of Analytical Psychology," on theory of the original self. According to the author, the theory of the original self grew from the empirical observation. Self-images can be observed in childhood and could be conjectured in infancy. The original state of the self was assumed to be a simple integrate without other manifestations than its wholenes.