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Abstract This work aimed to model the effect of heat treatment on viscosity of milk protein concentrate (MPC) using kinetic data. MPC obtained after ultrafiltration was subjected to different time-temperature heat treatment combinations. Heat treatment at high temperature and short time (i.e., 100 or 120 °C×30 s) led to a significant increase in viscosity in MPC systems. Second-order reaction kinetic models proved a better fit than zero- or first-order models when fitted for viscosity response to heat treatment. A distinct deviation in the slope of the Arrhenius plot at 77.9 °C correlated to a significant increase in the rate of viscosity development at temperatures above this, confirming the transition of protein denaturation from the unfolding to the aggregation stage. This study demonstrated that heat-induced viscosity of MPC as a result of protein denaturation/aggregation can be successfully modelled in response to thermal treatment, providing useful new information in predicting the effect of thermal treatment on viscosity of MPC. Highlights • Heat treatment (≥75 °C) caused a significant increase in viscosity of MPC. • A model was developed to describe the effect of heat treatment on MPC viscosity. • Second-order kinetics proved a good fit for viscosity response to heat treatment. • The Arrhenius plot showed the transition from protein unfolding to aggregation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acid whey (AW) is the liquid co-product arising from acid-induced precipitation of casein from skim milk. Further processing of AW is often challenging due to its high mineral content, which can promote aggregation of whey proteins, which contributes to high viscosity of the liquid concentrate during subsequent lactose crystallization and drying steps. This study focuses on mineral precipitation, protein aggregation, and lactose crystallization in liquid AW concentrates (~55% total solids), and on the microstructure of the final powders from 2 independent industrial-scale trials. These AW concentrates were observed to solidify either during processing or during storage (24 h) of pre-crystallized concentrate. The more rapid solidification in the former was associated with a greater extent of lactose crystallization and a higher ash-to-protein ratio in that concentrate. Confocal laser scanning microscopy analysis indicated the presence of a loose network of protein aggregates (≤10 μm) and lactose crystals (100-300 μm) distributed throughout the solidified AW concentrate. Mineral-based precipitate was also evident, using scanning electron microscopy, at the surface of AW powder particles, indicating the formation of insoluble calcium phosphate during processing. These results provide new information on the composition- and process-dependent physicochemical changes that are useful in designing and optimizing processes for AW. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of pH, adjusted using either hydrochloric acid (HCl), citric acid or sodium hydroxide, on calcium ion (Ca 2+ ) activity, and consequent changes in viscosity and heat coagulation time (HCT) of milk protein concentrate (MPC) was investigated. Reducing the pH of MPC dispersions resulted in a reduction in their viscosity, which subsequently increased during heat treatment. The maximum heat stability of MPC was observed at pH 6.7. Reducing the pH of MPC from 6.7 to 6.2 resulted in a significant ( P < 0.05) increase in Ca 2+ activity, and reduction in HCT. Such changes were more extensive using HCl compared with citric acid. Increasing the pH greater than 6.7 also led to a reduction in HCT but a decrease in Ca 2+ activity. These results demonstrate the importance of pH adjustment, and choice of acidulant, on Ca 2+ activity, viscosity, and heat coagulation properties of MPC concentrates during processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of heat treatment and protein standardisation on the physical properties of skim milk concentrates were determined. Protein standardisation was carried out by the addition of lactose or milk permeate to skim milk. Unstandardised and standardised skim milk was subjected to heat treatment temperatures of 90 or 120 °C prior to evaporation whereafter the solids content was increased to 46% (w/w). Viscosity data showed non-standardised concentrates had the highest viscosity, followed by skim standardised with milk permeate followed by that standardised with lactose. Thermal treatment at 120 °C also resulted in a higher viscosity than that at 90 °C for all concentrates. Particle size data of evaporated skim milk showed a bimodal size distribution for skim milk standardised with liquid milk permeate, compared with monomodal distribution profiles for unstandardised skim milk and lactose standardised skim milk. Overall, this study showed that protein standardisation and standardisation media significantly affected concentrate properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transverse harvest knife, also commonly called the finger or finger-bladed knife, has been utilized by rice farmers in southeast Asia for many centuries. The finger knife persisted in many traditional cultures long after the introduction of the sickle, a tool which provided farmers with the means to execute a much faster harvest. Several theories in interpretative archaeology have attempted to account for this rejection of more modern technological innovations. These theories, which include community-based social organization ideas and practical reasons for the continued use of the finger knife, are presented in this paper. Here I suggest an alternate theory based on a re-interpretation of existing research and fusion of existing theories: the primary reason for the historical and continued use of the finger knife is for seed selection through a centuries old tradition of plant breeding. Though I accept the accuracy of the practical and community-based, socio-cultural reasons for the use of the finger knife put forth by other authors, I suggest that seed selection and genetic improvement was the driving factor in the use of the finger knife. Indeed, intricate planting and harvesting rituals, which both ensured and encouraged varietal conservation and improvement co-evolved with the use of the finger knife as the primary harvest tool due to its unique ability to aid the farmer in the art and science of seed selection. When combined with previous ideas, this interpretative theory, based on the connection between ethnoagronomy and material culture, may provide a more complete picture of the story around the persistence of the finger knife in traditional rice-growing cultures in southeast Asia. I focus my theory on the terrace-building Ifugao people in the mountainous Cordillera region of northcentral Philippines; however, to put the use of the finger into a wider regional context, I draw from examples of the use of the finger knife in other traditional cultures throughout the region of southeast Asia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the disastrous effects of the U.S. war on drugs. It informs that the number of inmates in state and federal prisons in the U.S. has grown from 330,000 in 1980 to about 1.6 million presently due to the war on drugs and the severe punishment for people convicted of drug trafficking. It mentions that making the sale and consumption of drugs illegal will raise drug prices.

The diet of approximately three billion people worldwide is nutrient deficient and most of the world’s poorest people are dependent on staple food crops as their primary source of micronutrients. One component of the solution to nutrient deficiencies is collaboration among plant breeders, cereal chemists and nutritionists to produce staple crop cultivars with increased mineral nutrient concentration. Sixty-three historical and modern wheat cultivars were evaluated for grain yield and concentration of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, selenium, and zinc. While grain yield has increased over time, the concentrations of all minerals except calcium have decreased. Thus a greater consumption of whole wheat bread from modern cultivars is required to achieve the same percentage of recommended dietary allowance levels contributed by most of the older cultivars. The decrease in mineral concentration over the past 120 years occurs primarily in the soft white wheat market class, whereas in the hard red market class it has remained largely constant over time. This suggests that plant breeders, through intentional selection of low ash content in soft white wheat cultivars, have contributed to the decreased mineral nutrient concentration in modern wheat cultivars. These results contradict the theory that there exists a genetically based, biological trade-off between yield and mineral concentrations. Therefore, using the abundant variation present in wheat cultivars, it should be possible to improve mineral concentrations in modern cultivars without negatively affecting yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heterogeneous environments make it difficult to apply consistent selection pressure because often it is difficult to identify a single or a few superior genotypes across all sets of conditions. However, when the target system is characterized by heterogeneity of environmental stress, varieties developed in high-yielding conditions may fail to satisfy farmers’ needs. Although this type of system is often found in marginal environments of developing countries, heterogeneous environmental conditions are also a feature of organic and low-external-input systems in developed countries. To meet the needs of these systems, breeding programs must decentralize selection, and although decentralized selection can be done in formal breeding programs, it is more efficient to involve farmers in the selection and testing of early generation materials. Breeding within these target systems is challenging, both genetically and logistically, but can identify varieties that are adapted to farming systems in marginal environments or that use very few external inputs. A great deal has been published in recent years on the need for local adaptation and participatory plant breeding; this article reviews and synthesizes that literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of perennial wheat cultivars in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) region of the U.S. addresses the need for alternative cropping systems that reduce soil erosion and degradation from mechanical tillage. Selection of parental lines will be especially important for breeding perennial wheat. Here we describe the karyotypes of three cultivars of bluebunch wheatgrass, Pseudoroegnaria spicata [Pursh] A. Love, and one cultivar of Snake River wheatgrass, Elymus wawawaiensis. These four cultivars are wild relatives of wheat that are adapted to the low rainfall regions of the PNW and can be crossed with bread wheat (Triticum aestivuin L.) using traditional breeding methods. Chromosome number, arm ratio, relative length and centromere index are given for Ps. spicata cultivars 'Whitmar' (ssp. inermis), 'Goldar' (ssp. spicata), and 'Anatone' (ssp. spicata), and the E. wawawaiensis cultivar 'Secar'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Consumer demand regarding the impacts of conventional agriculture on the environment and human health have spurred the growth of organic farming systems; however, organic agriculture is often criticized as low-yielding and unable to produce enough food to supply the world''s population. Using wheat as a model crop species, we show that poorly adapted cultivars are partially responsible for the lower yields often found in organic farming systems when compared with conventional farming systems. Our results demonstrate that the highest yielding soft white winter wheat genotypes in conventional systems are not the highest yielding genotypes in organic systems. An analysis of variance for yield among 35 genotypes between paired organic and conventional systems showed highly significant (P <0.001) genotype×system interactions in four of five locations. Genotypic ranking analysis using Spearman''s rank correlation coefficient (R S) showed no correlation between genotypic rankings for yield in four of five locations; however, the ranks were correlated for test weight at all five locations. This indicates that increasing yield in organic systems through breeding will require direct selection within organic systems rather than indirect selection in conventional systems. Direct selection in organic systems produced yields 15%, 7%, 31% and 5% higher than the yields resulting from indirect selection for locations 1–4, respectively. With crop cultivars bred in and adapted to the unique conditions inherent in organic systems, organic agriculture will be better able to realize its full potential as a high-yielding alternative to conventional agriculture. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper considers the costs of reducing consumption of goods by making their production illegal and punishing illegal producers. We use illegal drugs as a prominent example. We show that the more inelastic either demand for or supply of goods is, the greater the increase in social cost from further reducing its production by greater enforcement efforts. So, optimal public expenditures on the apprehension and conviction of illegal suppliers depend not only on the difference between the social and private values of consumption, but also on this elasticity. When demand and supply are no so elastic, it does not pay to enforce any prohibition unless the social value is negative. We also show that a monetary tax could cause a greater reduction in output and increase in price than optimal enforcement against the same goods if it were illegal, even though some producers may go underground to avoid a monetary tax. When enforcement is costly, excise taxes and quantity restrictions are not equivalent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines how differences in longevity over time and across groups add to the typical measures of economic progress and intergroup differentials in the U.S. Gains for and differences between groups defined both by race and by gender; Use of the willingness to pay as the measure of the economic value gains in longevity; Differences in income which explain about a third to a half of the current black-white gap in longevity.

Early in his career, Winslow Homer eschewed commissions, choosing instead to put his faith in and direct his efforts toward the growing speculative market for American paintings. Denying himself the income from patrons, he worked tirelessly to manage his artistic production for maximum gain through a matrix of venues: galleries, academies, clubs, and expositions. His efforts to sell his work have trickled down to our experience of it. Homer consistently reworked or cropped paintings that proved difficult to sell, leaving visible traces of his marketing process. These traces are as visible as his creative and formal processes and remain inseparable from them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ten advanced breeding lines of quinoa were evaluated for their physicochemical and functional characteristics. These novel breeding lines were used in two model foods, including cookies and cooked grains, to understand the influence of their characteristics on the product quality. The cookies were baked using whole quinoa flour, and the quality attributes of texture, physical dimensions, and color were measured. The whole quinoa grains were cooked with water at a 1:4 (w/w) grain‐to‐water ratio, and quality attributes including water uptake (WU‐G), bulk density (BD‐G), and cooking loss (CL‐G) were measured. Significant differences in the quality of both products as an impact of the breeding lines were observed. In baked cookies, the WAQ2 variety produced cookies with the lowest diameter, whereas cookies prepared with WAQ1 were significantly softer than other varieties. In terms of cooked quinoa, WAQ8 exhibited the highest WU‐G while WAQ1 showed the highest CL‐G. Correlations were observed between flour characteristics and final product quality. Cookie height was negatively correlated with protein content, whereas the water solubility index (WSI) of flours had a positive effect on the cookie hardness. The cooking characteristics of quinoa grains were found to be correlated with the thermal properties of whole quinoa flour. The results of this study will help determine the advanced breeding lines for release as commercial varieties and will also provide food processors with information to find suitable quinoa varieties for different food applications. Practical Application: New quinoa breeding lines have been developed to be grown in the climate conditions of Washington State. These varieties were characterized to find correlations with food quality for cookies and cooked grains. The results from this study will help farmers navigate among the quinoa varieties and help commercial food producers use the optimal quinoa variety for their specific food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differentiates the nature of wage inequality for males in the 1980s and earlier decades. Rise in inequality during the 1970s and 1980s; Dramatic fall in wage inequality during the 1940s; Relative stability in the 1950s and 1960s; Differences in the behavior of factors that affect wage inequality between the 1980s and earlier decades.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is becoming an increasingly important food crop. Understanding the microbiome of quinoa and its relationships with soil microorganisms may improve crop yield potential or nutrient use efficiency. Whether quinoa is a host or non-host of a key soil symbiont, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), is suddenly up for debate with recent field studies reporting root colonization and presence of arbuscules. This research seeks to add evidence to the mycorrhizal classification of quinoa as we investigated additional conditions not previously explored in quinoa that may affect root colonization. A greenhouse study used six AMF species, two AMF commercial inoculant products, and a diverse set of 10 quinoa genotypes. Results showed 0 to 3% quinoa root colonization by AMF when grown under greenhouse conditions. Across quinoa genotypes, AMF inoculant affected shoot dry weight (p = 0.066) and height (p = 0.031). Mykos Gold produced greater dry biomass than Claroideoglomus eutunicatum (27% increase), Rhizophagus clarus (26% increase), and within genotype CQ119, the control (21% increase). No treatment increased plant height compared to control, but Funneliformis mosseae increased height compared to C. eutunicatum (25% increase) and Rhizophagus intraradices (25% increase). Although quinoa plants were minimally colonized by AMF, plant growth responses fell along the mutualism-parasitism continuum. Individual AMF treatments increased leaf greenness in quinoa genotypes 49ALC and QQ87, while R. clarus decreased greenness in CQ119 compared to the control. Our research findings support the recommendation to classify quinoa as non-mycorrhizal when no companion plant is present and inconsistently mycorrhizal when conditional colonization occurs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genotype by environment (G × E) interactions for the dietary fiber β‐glucan, one of the deciding factors for the end use of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) grain, are not well understood. The objectives of this study were (a) to investigate G × E interactions for β‐glucan content of diverse barley genotypes across dryland grain‐producing environments in eastern Washington, and (b) to determine the range and stability of β‐glucan content exhibited across precipitation zones. We examined 17 two‐row, spring barley varieties and breeding lines across eight locations for β‐glucan, protein, and yield in 2017 and 2018. β‐glucan ranged from 1.81 to 7.18 (%, w/w), with a mean of 4.01 (%, w/w). Genotype × year (Y), G × location (L), L × Y, and G × E (G × L × Y) interactions were found for β‐glucan. Univariate models including the regression model with slope (bi) and deviation from regression (Sd2), Wricke's ecovalence stability index (Wi2), and Shukla's stability variance (σi2) agreed that there was moderate rank stability amongst genotypes. Data generated through this research will provide a better understanding of which cultivars that farmers can grow in their area will meet industry targets and standards for both food and malt barley. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of preheat temperature (63 or 77 °C for 30 s; final heat 120 °C for 30 s) and casein to whey protein ratio on the physical characteristics of 3.3%, w/w, dairy protein beverages was investigated. Dispersions preheated at 77 °C had lower viscosity than dispersions preheated at 63 °C. Casein‐containing dispersions had significantly lower levels of α‐lactalbumin denaturation than whey protein‐only dispersions. A higher proportion of casein improved the thermal stability of protein dispersions. Overall, alteration of preheat temperature and casein to whey protein ratio can influence dairy beverage quality, with increasing levels of casein reducing physical changes due to heat treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has gained considerable attention worldwide during the past decade due to its nutritional and health benefits. However, its susceptibility to high temperatures has been reported as a serious obstacle to its global production. The objective of this study was to evaluate quinoa growth and pollen morphology in response to high temperatures. Pollen morphology and viability, plant growth and seed set, and several physiological parameters were measured at anthesis in two genotypes of quinoa subjected to day/night temperatures of 22/16°C as a control treatment and 40/24°C as the heat stress treatment. Our results showed that heat stress reduced the pollen viability between 30% and 70%. Although no visible morphological differences were observed on the surface of the pollen between the heat‐stressed and non‐heat‐stressed treatments, the pollen wall (intine and extine) thickness increased due to heat stress. High temperature did not affect seed yield, seed size and leaf greenness. On the other hand, high temperature improved the rate of photosynthesis. We found that quinoa has a high plasticity in response to high temperature, though pollen viability and pollen wall structure were affected by high temperatures in anthesis stage. This study is also the first report of quinoa pollen being trinucleate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Malted barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is a foundational ingredient for the brewing industry, providing functionality and flavor. Increasing demand for locally produced barley, supported by the craft brewing and malting industries, necessitates identifying environments and varieties to meet this demand. Therefore, we analyzed malt quality and quantified quality scores for adjunct (AQS) and all‐malt (AMQS) brewing for 12 barley genotypes grown at 11 locations in eastern Washington and Northern Idaho in 2017 and 2018. Genotype‐by‐environment interactions were identified for six out of nine of the malt quality traits. These included kernel plumpness, malt extract, diastatic power, α‐amylase, β‐glucan, and free amino nitrogen. Stability indices, including Eberhart and Russell's deviation from regression, simultaneous selection index, and mean of the relative performance of genotypic values were quantified. We identified genotypes that had high stability and high AQS (LCS Genie, LCS Odyssey, 12WA 120.14, 12WA 120.23, and GemCraft) or AMQS (LCS Odyssey, LCS Genie, Palmer, 11WA 107.36, 11WA 107.58). Significant correlations between rainfall and barley protein (r = −0.22, p < 0.001), and between barley protein and seven out of eight of the other malt quality traits, reveal important relationships that may influence malt quality. This study may aid producers in variety selection, and provides a detailed malt quality analysis, evidence of G×E interactions, and stability measures for barley genotypes within a production region that has the potential to meet malting barley demand. Core Ideas: Protein content had significant correlations with seven out of eight of the malt quality traits.Genotype × environment interactions influenced six out of nine of the malt quality traits.We recommend Genie and Odyssey based on malt quality scores and stability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Starch characteristics significantly influence the functionality and end-use quality of cereals and pseudo-cereals. This study examined the composition and properties of starch from 11 pure varieties and 2 commercial samples of quinoa in relationship to the texture of cooked quinoa. Nearly all starch properties and characteristics differed among these samples. Results showed that total starch content of seeds ranged from 53.2 to 75.1 g/100 g apparent amylose content ranged from 2.7% to 16.9%; total amylose ranged from 4.7% to 17.3%; and the degree of amylose-lipid complex ranged from 3.4% to 43.3%. Amylose leaching ranged from 31 mg/100 g starch in 'Japanese Strain' to 862 mg/100 g starch in '49ALC.' 'Japanese Strain' starch also exhibited the highest water solubility (4.5%) and the lowest swelling power (17). α-Amylase activity in '1ESP,' 'Col.#6197,' 'Japanese Strain,' 'QQ63,' 'Yellow Commercial,' and 'Red Commercial' (0.03 to 0.09 CU) were significantly lower than the levels of the other quinoa samples (0.20 to 1.16 CU). Additionally, gel texture, thermal properties, and pasting properties of quinoa starches were investigated. Lastly, correlation analysis showed that the quinoa samples with higher amylose content tended to yield harder, stickier, more cohesive, more gummy, and more chewy texture after cooking. A higher degree of amylose-lipid complex and amylose leaching were associated with softer and less chewy cooked quinoa TPA texture. Higher starch enthalpy correlated with firmer, more adhesive, more cohesive, and chewier texture. In sum, starch plays a significant role in the texture of cooked quinoa. Practical Application The research determined starch characteristics among a diverse set of pure quinoa varieties and commercial samples, and identified the relationships between starch properties and cooked quinoa texture. The results can help breeders and food manufacturers to understand better the relationships among quinoa starch characteristics, cooked quinoa texture, and the best use of different cultivars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Texture differences of cooked quinoa were studied among 13 different varieties. Correlations between the texture parameters and seed composition, seed characteristics, cooking quality, flour pasting properties, and flour thermal properties were determined. The results showed that texture of cooked quinoa was significantly differed among varieties. 'Black,' 'Cahuil,' and 'Red Commercial' yielded harder texture, while '49ALC,' '1ESP,' and 'Col.#6197' showed softer texture. '49ALC,' '1ESP,' 'Col.#6197,' and 'QQ63' were more adhesive, while other varieties were not sticky. The texture profile correlated to physical--chemical properties in different ways. Protein content was positively correlated with all the texture profile analysis (TPA) parameters. Seed hardness was positively correlated with TPA hardness, gumminess, and chewiness at P ≤ 0.09. Seed density was negatively correlated with TPA hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness, whereas seed coat proportion was positively correlated with these TPA parameters. Increased cooking time of quinoa was correlated with increased hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness. The water uptake ratio was inversely related to TPA hardness, gumminess, and chewiness. Rapid Visco Analyzer peak viscosity was negatively correlated with the hardness, gumminess, and chewiness ( P < 0.07); breakdown was also negatively correlated with those TPA parameters ( P < 0.09); final viscosity and setback were negatively correlated with the hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness ( P < 0.05); setback was correlated with the adhesiveness as well ( r = −0.63, P = 0.02). Onset gelatinization temperature ( To) was significantly positively correlated with all the texture profile parameters, and peak temperature ( Tp) was moderately correlated with cohesiveness, whereas neither conclusion temperature ( Tc) nor enthalpy correlated with the texture of cooked quinoa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

American craft brewers are targeting barley malt as a novel source of flavor and as a means of differentiation. However, fundamental tools have only recently emerged to aid barley breeders in supporting this effort, such as the hot steep malt sensory method, a wort preparation method recently approved by the American Society of Brewing Chemists for evaluation of extractable malt flavor. The primary objective of this study was to determine if insights into beer liking and sensory attributes can be gained through hot steep malt sensory using an untrained panel of craft beer consumers (n = 95). We evaluated consumer acceptance of hot steep and beer samples of different barley genotypes using a 9‐point hedonic scale, check‐all‐that‐apply (CATA), and open comment during separate sensory panels. Beers brewed with Washington State University breeding lines (n = 4), selected for all‐malt craft brewing, generally had higher consumer acceptance than the industry‐standard control variety (CDC Copeland). Genotype had a significant influence on the consumer acceptance of beer aroma, appearance, taste/flavor, sweetness, and overall liking but only on hot steep appearance. Significant differences between genotypes were found for 18% (fruity and other) and 46% (chemical, citrus, earthy, fruity, stale, and sweet aromatic) of CATA attributes for the hot steep and beer panels, respectively. Hot steep and beer liking and sensory attributes had low correlation coefficients. For example, beer overall liking was negatively correlated with chemical (r = −0.338, p < 0.0001) and positively correlated with fruity (r = 0.265, p < 0.0001). This study demonstrates that untrained craft beer consumers can better differentiate among genotypes using beers than hot steep samples. Practical Application: In general, Washington State University barley breeding lines had higher consumer acceptance than the control variety, CDC Copeland. Each genotype had a distinctive beer flavor profile, such as 12WA_120.14 (fruity and sweet aromatic), which had the highest consumer acceptance ratings, and 10WA_107.43 (citrus), which has been released as the variety "Palmer." The results illustrate that the use of different barley genotypes presents varied sensory properties in the final beer and that particular malt and beer sensory attributes may influence consumer acceptance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High temperatures, coupled with arid environments, are a major constraint to quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) production. Here, we tested the effectiveness of multiple phenotypic and physiological parameters useful in the selection of heat‐tolerant quinoa genotypes. Initially, we screened 112 quinoa genotypes for leaf greenness index under high‐temperature greenhouse conditions. Of these, eight genotypes were selected for field evaluations under irrigated and rainfed treatments in two locations over two growing seasons (2016–2017) in Washington State. Of these eight, four genotypes were selected as potentially heat tolerant (QQ74, Baer, BGQ 352, and Pison), and four were selected as heat‐susceptible (17 GR, La Molina, 3 UISE, and Japanese Strain). Spectral reflectance indices including normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and green NDVI, as well as multiple physiological parameters, such as stomatal conductance, leaf temperature, and area under soil plant analysis development (SPAD) value decline curve (AUSDC), were evaluated. Results show variability in stomatal conductance among genotypes with 17 GR and BGQ 352 having the highest stomatal conductance and QQ74 the lowest. Baer, Pison, and QQ74 had the highest NDVI value across environments, and Japanese Strain had the lowest. Best linear unbiased prediction values in AUSDC showed that QQ74 had the highest leaf greenness and Japanese Strain had the lowest; these were classified as heat tolerant and heat susceptible, respectively. The NDVI is a potentially useful measure to predict grain yield in quinoa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The U.S. art museum sector is grappling with diversity. While previous work has investigated the demographic diversity of museum staffs and visitors, the diversity of artists in their collections has remained unreported. We conduct the first large-scale study of artist diversity in museums. By scraping the public online catalogs of 18 major U.S. museums, deploying a sample of 10,000 artist records comprising over 9,000 unique artists to crowdsourcing, and analyzing 45,000 responses, we infer artist genders, ethnicities, geographic origins, and birth decades. Our results are threefold. First, we provide estimates of gender and ethnic diversity at each museum, and overall, we find that 85% of artists are white and 87% are men. Second, we identify museums that are outliers, having significantly higher or lower representation of certain demographic groups than the rest of the pool. Third, we find that the relationship between museum collection mission and artist diversity is weak, suggesting that a museum wishing to increase diversity might do so without changing its emphases on specific time periods and regions. Our methodology can be used to broadly and efficiently assess diversity in other fields. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quinoa is becoming increasingly popular, with an expanding number of commercially available varieties. To compare the sensory properties of these quinoa varieties, a common sensory lexicon needs to be developed. Thus, the objective of this study was to develop a lexicon of cooked quinoa and examine consumer acceptance of diverse varieties. A trained panel ( n = 9) developed aroma, taste/flavor, texture, and color descriptors to describe the sensory properties of 21 quinoa varieties. In addition, texture of the cooked quinoa was determined using a texture analyzer. Results indicated that the developed lexicon could distinguish among these quinoa varieties, showing significant differences in aromas, taste/flavors, and texture attributes. Specifically, quinoa variety effects were observed for the aromas of caramel, nutty, buttery, grassy, earthy, and woody; taste/flavor of sweet, bitter, grain-like, nutty, earthy, and toasty; and firm, cohesive, pasty, adhesive, crunchy, chewy, astringent, and moist textures. Three varieties, 'QQ74,' 'Linares,' and 'CO407D,' exhibited an adhesive texture that has not been described in other commercialized quinoa. Subsequent consumer evaluation ( n = 100) on 6 selected samples found that the 'Commercial Red' sample was the most accepted overall whereas the least accepted was the field variety 'QQ74.' For all consumers, overall acceptance of quinoa was driven by higher intensities of grassy aroma, and firm and crunchy texture. Segmentation of the consumers into 4 groups was explored and showed that consumers varied in their acceptance of specific attributes, particularly texture. From the present study, the quinoa lexicon and key drivers of consumer acceptance can be utilized in the industry to evaluate quinoa varieties, product quality and processing procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extrusion of 2 quinoa varieties, Cherry Vanilla and Black (scarified and unscarified) and a mixed quinoa variety, Bolivian Royal (scarified and degermed) were studied for their extrusion characteristics. A corotating twin-screw extruder with a 3 mm round die was used. Feed moisture contents of 15%, 20%, and 25% (wet basis) were studied. The extruder barrel temperature was kept constant at 140 °C and screw speeds were varied from 100, 150, and 200 revolutions per minutes. Process responses (specific mechanical energy, back pressure, and torque) and product responses (expansion ratio, unit density, and water absorption index/water solubility index) were evaluated. The degermed Bolivian Royal showed the highest expansion in comparison to all other varieties, attributed to its significantly low levels of fat, fiber, and protein. The scarified Cherry Vanilla resulted in the lowest expansion ratio. This was attributed to the increase in the protein content from the removal of the outer layer. The results indicate that all the varieties performed differently in the extrusion process due to their modification processes as well as the individual variety characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pea protein isolate (PPI) is used in many food formulations, due to its low cost, commercial availability and excellent amino acid profile. The objective of this study was to determine the emulsification properties of PPI. Particle size of PPI powders showed neither temperature (25–65 °C) nor time (up to 24 h) increased solubilisation of powder particles during mixing. Heating PPI dispersions (10%, w/w, protein) from 45 to 90 °C led to an increase in storage modulus ( G ′; Pa) at 71 °C, indicating the onset of protein aggregation. Gel formation occurred at 79 °C ( G ′ > 1 Pa). Pea protein-stabilised emulsions made using homogenization (15 MPa; 1 pass) or microfluidization (50 MPa; 1 pass) resulted in the formation of cold-set gels, with gel strength increasing with increasing oil concentration and fluidic pressure. Droplet size and viscosity of pea protein-stabilised emulsions decreased and increased, respectively, with increasing ultrasonication time. Overall, ultrasonication (< 50 °C) can create a uniform droplet size emulsion, while, homogenization and microfluidization can produce cold-set gels for use in a wide-range of food applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extrusion processing characteristics of Cherry Vanilla quinoa flour ( Chenopodium quinoa Willd) were investigated using a three factor response surface design to assess the impact of feed moisture, temperature, and screw speed on the physicochemical properties of quinoa extrudates. Specific mechanical energy (SME) required to extrude this quinoa variety was higher (250–500 kJ/kg) than previously reported for quinoa. The following characteristics of the extrudates were observed: expansion ratio (1.17–1.55 g/cm 3 ), unit density (0.45–1.02 g/cm 3 ), water absorption index (WAI) (2.33–3.05 g/g), and water solubility index (WSI) (14.5–15.87%). This quinoa flour had relatively low direct expansion compared to cereal grains such as corn or wheat, suggesting that it is not well suited for the making of direct expanded products. The study further suggests that there is a need to understand the processing characteristics of new quinoa varieties for cultivation. Understanding extrusion and other quality traits in advance will help to select the appropriate varieties that would allow food processors to meet consumer needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mottled-dappled ( Mo-dp ) is a mouse model of Menkes disease caused by a large, previously uncharacterized deletion in the 5′ region of Atp7a , the mouse ortholog of ATP7A . Affected mutants die in utero at embryonic day 17, and show bending and thickening of the ribs and distortion of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and limbs. To characterize this allele, we designed a custom 4x180K microarray on the mouse X chromosome and performed comparative genomic hybridization using extracted DNA from normal and carrier Mo-dp females, and identified an approximately 9 kb deletion. We used PCR to fine-map the breakpoints and amplify a junction fragment of 630 bp. Sequencing of the junction fragment disclosed the exact breakpoint locations and that the Mo-dp deletion is precisely 8990 bp, including approximately 2 kb in the promoter region of Atp7a . Western blot analysis of Mo-dp heterozygous brains showed diminished amounts of Atp7a protein, consistent with reduced expression due to the promoter region deletion on one allele. In heterozygous females, brain copper levels tended to be lower compared to wild type whereas neurochemical analyses revealed higher dihydroxyphenylacetic acid:dihydroxyphenylglycol (DOPAC:DHPG) and dopamine:norepinephrine (DA:NE) ratios compared to normal (P = 0.002 and 0.029, respectively), consistent with partial deficiency of dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, a copper-dependent enzyme. Heterozygous females showed no significant differences in body weight compared to wild type females. Our results delineate the molecular details of the Mo-dp mutation for the first time and define novel biochemical findings in heterozygous female carriers of this allele. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive application of imidazolinone (IMI) herbicides had a significant impact on barley productivity contributing to a continuous decline in its acreage over the last two decades. A possible solution to this problem is to transfer IMI-resistance from a recently characterized mutation in the ‘Bob’ barley AHAS (acetohydroxy acid synthase) gene to other food, feed and malting barley cultivars. We focused our efforts on transferring IMI-resistance to barley varieties adapted to the US Pacific Northwest (PNW), since it comprises ∼23% (335,000 ha) of the US agricultural land under barley production. To effectively breed for IMI-resistance, we studied the genetic diversity among 13 two-rowed spring barley cultivars/breeding-lines from the PNW using 61 microsatellite markers, and selected six barley genotypes that showed medium to high genetic dissimilarity with the ‘Bob’ AHAS mutant. The six selected genotypes were used to make 29–53 crosses with the AHAS mutant and a range of 358–471 F1 seeds were obtained. To make informed selection for the recovery of the recipient parent genome, the genetic location of the AHAS gene was determined and its genetic nature assessed. Large F2 populations ranging in size from 2158–2846 individuals were evaluated for herbicide resistance and seedling vigor. Based on the results, F3 lines from the six most vigorous F2 genotypes per cross combination were evaluated for their genetic background. A range of 20%–90% recovery of the recipient parent genome for the carrier chromosome was observed. An effort was made to determine the critical dose of herbicide to distinguish between heterozygotes and homozygotes for the mutant allele. Results suggested that the mutant can survive up to the 10× field recommended dose of herbicide, and the 8× and 10× herbicide doses can distinguish between the two AHAS mutant genotypes. Finally, implications of this research in sustaining barley productivity in the PNW are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Numerous social indicators turned negative for Blacks in the 1980s and rebounded a decade later. We explore whether crack cocaine explains these patterns. Absent a direct measure, we construct a crack prevalence index using multiple proxies. Our index reproduces spatial and temporal patterns described in ethnographic accounts of the crack epidemic. It explains much of the 1980s rise in Black youth homicide and more moderate increases in adverse birth outcomes. Although our index remains high through the 1990s, crack's deleterious social impact fades. Changes over time in behavior, crack markets, and the user population may have mitigated crack's damaging impacts. ( JEL K42, J15, I30) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sequential heating processes are commonly applied to milk by the dairy industry as part of their microbiological control strategy. Often pasteurisation at 72 °C is followed by a sequential high heat treatment step of up to 125 °C; however, such severe heat treatment can lead to reduced protein quality. Nine temperature combinations (80–90 °C) were evaluated to assess microbial reduction and whey protein nitrogen index values during pilot scale milk processing. A total of 110 bacterial isolates were identified to species level by 16S rDNA sequencing, with Bacillus licheniformis identified as the dominant species. While the experimental treatments did not achieve microbial reductions comparable with the control heating process, the results of this study provide a benchmark for milk processors relative to the effects of sequential heat treatments on milk and their impact on the survival of both thermally resistant microbial populations and thermally labile milk components during processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Tested 8 grain crop sequences, some with quinoa, for dryland organic production. • Efficient N cycling through crop residues maintained soil N supply. • Inorganic N was higher in soil after quinoa compared to wheat. • Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonized quinoa roots, but less than in other crops. • 3 years of organic grain production were supported by previous 5 years of alfalfa. Organic management is rapidly expanding as an alternative to conventional agriculture, but maintaining sufficient available soil nitrogen (N) supply is a challenge for organic systems in the semiarid regions of the US Pacific Northwest (PNW). Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a potential new crop for such systems, but there are many knowledge gaps regarding impacts of quinoa in crop rotations in the US. Here we tested the effects of quinoa in organic crop rotations for the Palouse region of the PNW. Specifically, we evaluated eight 3-year grain crop sequences, as part of a longer rotation with alfalfa, on the following metrics: crop productivity, soil N budgets, soil microbial parameters, arbuscular mycorrhizae, and soil aggregate size distribution. Organic crop yields averaged 495, 2736, and 2403 kg ha−1 for chickpea, barley, and wheat, respectively (33 %, 79 % and 77 % of the respective crop county averages). Yields were affected by weather across growing seasons, as were the amount and quality of residues, which in turn influenced soil N cycling. Overall soil N supply decreased slightly through the 3-yr sequences. Cereal grain yields were correlated with inorganic N (IN), and the correlation was stronger for subsurface (30−150 cm) depths than the surface (0−30 cm); IN was sufficient to support high cereal yields even in the later years when weather was suitable, but cereal yields overall may have been N-limited. Crop yields were more highly correlated with spring surface soil potentially mineralizable N than with spring surface IN. More inorganic N was available in surface (0−30 cm) post-harvest soil following quinoa (13.1 kg N ha-1 more) compared to wheat, but quinoa yields were low, with a 4-yr average of 104 kg ha−1. Soil microbial biomass and activity were not affected by sequence treatments. Although plants of the family Amaranthaceae are often considered "non-mycorrhizal", moderate rates of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) colonization were observed in quinoa. However, AMF colonization was lower in quinoa compared to other grains in the sequences, and the colonization of crops following quinoa was lower than following wheat. Soil structure was finer after quinoa, with a higher proportion of aggregates in the smaller size classes. Our results show that quinoa affects soil properties, and that organic management of 3-yr dryland grain sequences in rotation with alfalfa are possible in this area, given efficient N cycling through crop residues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Tested 8 grain crop sequences for dryland organic agriculture, some with quinoa. • Crop sequence affected agronomic outcomes but weather caused greater differences. • Economic returns from organic quinoa were moderate despite low yields. • Using alfalfa in organic grain cropping systems can increase profits & reduce risk. • Organic cropping systems financially outperformed a typical conventional system. Volatile crop prices and a desire for sustainability have farmers considering alternative practices to increase revenue diversity and protect soil health. Organic management is rapidly expanding as an alternative to conventional agriculture, and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a potential new crop for organic systems in the Pacific Northwest. Here we tested the agronomic and economic effects of diversifying dryland crop rotations with organic quinoa in the Palouse region of the Pacific Northwest. Eight 3-year grain cropping sequences were compared based on metrics of crop productivity, crop quality, and economic performance. While the crop sequences affected these metrics, crop yields and quality were mediated primarily by weather across growing seasons. Cumulative yields were higher for crop sequences that started with chickpea compared to barley. Organic quinoa yields were lower than the yield potential for the region, but some 3-year sequences with quinoa produced similar net returns to some sequences with wheat. Mean returns over variable costs were $324 ha−1 yr−1 for the 3-year sequence treatments; each treatment averaged positive net returns to variable costs despite some individual years having negative returns. The highest net returns to variable costs were in sequences that grew wheat and those that started with chickpea. Returns over total costs for the 3-year sequence treatments averaged -$33 ha−1 yr−1. The organic cropping systems (the total 8-year crop rotations including 5 years of organic alfalfa) produced higher returns over variable and total costs ($615 ha−1 yr−1 and $168 ha−1 yr−1, respectively) than a typical conventional rotation with county average yields during the same 8-year period ($477 ha−1 yr−1 and $82 ha−1 yr−1). Our results show that premiums for organic alfalfa and grains make these organic cropping systems economically viable for dryland production in the Pacific Northwest. Advances in organic weed control and regionally adapted quinoa varieties would further reduce the risk for farmers attempting this cropping system diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]