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The article provides an overview of James Hankins's book, Virtue Politics: Soulcraft and Statecraft in Renaissance Italy, which delves into the themes of empire and cosmopolitanism during the Renaissance. It examines the contrasting perspectives on empire, emphasizing the benefits of unity and cosmopolitanism, while acknowledging the criticisms of cultural destruction and loss of freedom. The Renaissance humanists, inspired by the virtues of Rome, aimed to educate and transform society through their writings, emphasizing the importance of virtue, practical wisdom, and the study of ancient literature. The article also explores the historical context of the Renaissance humanists, including the decline of the Roman empire and the challenges faced by Christendom, which influenced their aspirations for a new kind of empire. The article praises Hankins's book for its comprehensive and insightful exploration of the political thought of the humanists, including their anticipation of liberal arguments. [Extracted from the article]

On Aaron Herold's interpretation, Tocqueville understands that human beings long for a type of transcendence that cannot be satisfied merely by the earthly goods that liberalism promises. Herold finds Tocqueville writing artfully to attempt to return human beings to a deeper understanding of themselves, and in so doing, exercising a type of statesmanship in his writing. This review raises three questions regarding Herold's presentation of Tocqueville: first, the degree to which noble self-sacrifice is embedded in the American tradition; second, the ultimate status of religious toleration as a moral good in Tocqueville's thought; and third, Tocqueville's view of the relation of religion and philosophy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In the US, one in six men who have sex with men (MSM) with HIV are unaware of their HIV infection. In certain circumstances, access to HIV testing and viral load (VL) monitoring is challenging. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of conducting laboratory-based HIV and antiretroviral (ARV) drug testing, and VL monitoring as part of two studies on self-collected dried blood spots (DBS).Methods: Participants were instructed to collect DBS by self-fingerstick in studies that enrolled MSM online. DBS from the first study (N = 1444) were tested with HIV serological assays approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). A subset was further tested with laboratory-modified serological and VL assays, and ARV levels were measured by mass spectrometry. DBS from the second study (N = 74) were only tested to assess VL monitoring.Results: In the first study, the mail back rate of self-collected DBS cards was 62.9%. Ninety percent of DBS cards were received at the laboratory within 2 weeks from the day of collection, and 98% of the cards had sufficient spots for one assay. Concordance between FDA-approved and laboratory-modified protocols was high. The samples with undetectable ARV had higher VL than samples with at least one ARV drug. In the second study, 70.3% participants returned self-collected DBS cards, and all had sufficient spots for VL assay. High VL was observed in samples from participants who reported low ARV adherence.Conclusions: In these studies, MSM were able to collect and provide adequate DBS for HIV testing. The FDA-approved and laboratory-modified testing algorithms performed similarly. DBS collected at home may be feasible for HIV testing, ARV measurement, and monitoring viral suppression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the important contributions to the scholarship of Benjamin Straumann's Crisis and Constitutionalism: Roman Political Thought from the Fall of the Republic to the Age of Revolution. Straumann argues that Cicero elaborated a notion of constitutionalism that contains important proto-liberal ideas. In focusing so intently on tracing the appeal to natural rights in constitutional thinking, Straumann excludes from his analysis important reflections on the Roman constitution which do not rely on natural rights, but which still elaborate important and influential features of constitutionalism such as institutions and safeguards. Straumann's narrow focus appears to induce him to reject the possibility that Machiavelli has anything worthwhile to contribute to an understanding of the Roman constitution and thus to miss the impact that the Florentine had on later thinkers in the very constitutional tradition that Straumann is so intent to highlight and explicate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Geenius HIV-1/2 Supplemental assay was evaluated with HIV-1 and HIV-2 samples. • Comparison with other supplemental tests showed similar performance in HIV-1 samples. • Software v1.3 reduced the number of HIV-2 indeterminate results due to gp140. Abstract Background In the US, the HIV diagnostic algorithm for laboratory settings recommends the use of an HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation supplemental assay after an initial reactive antigen/antibody (Ag/Ab) assay result. Since the discontinuation of the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test (MS), the Geenius HIV-1/2 Supplemental assay (Geenius) is the only FDA-approved supplemental differentiation test. Objective We compared the performance of Geenius to MS and Western Blot (WB). Study design The relative seroconversion plasma reactivity of Geenius and MS was assessed using a 50% cumulative frequency analysis from 17 HIV-1 seroconverters. In addition, previously characterized plasma specimens, 186 HIV-1 positive, 100 HIV-2 positive, and 93 Ag/Ab-positive/HIV-1 RNA-negative, were tested with Geenius v1.1 software. McNemar's test was used for paired comparison analysis. A subset of 48 specimens were retested with the upgraded Geenius v1.3 software. Results In HIV-1 seroconverters, the relative seroconversion reactivity was 2.5 and 2 days before the first positive HIV-1 WB for Geenius and MS, respectively. In HIV-1 positive samples, Geenius performed similarly to HIV-1 WB (p =0.1687) and MS (p =0.8312). In HIV-2 positive samples, Geenius underperformed compared to HIV-2 WB (p =0.0005) and MS (p =0.0012). When using the upgraded software among the HIV-1 positive and Ag/Ab-reactive/HIV-1 RNA-negative samples, gp140 reactivity decreased without affecting characterization of HIV-2 samples. Conclusions With HIV-1 samples, Geenius, WB and MS performance was similar as supplemental tests. The updated Geenius software reduced false gp140 reactivity, but had no impact on identifying true HIV-2 infections. Further evaluation will assess the impact of the Geenius software update on final diagnostic interpretations [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the article, the author discusses political philosopher Charles Montesquieu and his book "The Spirit of the Laws." Also cited are Montesquieu's radical thoughts as shown in his opposition to despotism based on classical philosophy and Christianity, as well as the comments of Christopher Kelly and Bryan-Paul Frost on Montesquieu.

Explicitly and implicitly in The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu binds together the Japanese who persecute Christians and the Inquisitors of Catholicism who persecute heretics. In seeking purity, both sets of vehement reformers impose atrocious punishments. In so binding the abuses of the East and West together, the work is an expression neither of Orientalism nor of Eurocentrism as conventionally understood. Although Montesquieu thus offers a critical approach to Europe's vulnerability to reformers who go to extremes, whether pious zealots who seek to perpetuate Christianity or zealous Enlightenment philosophes who would seek to eradicate it, many commentators have focused on the work's apparent neutrality with regard to the various cultural phenomena it examines. The key to understanding Montesquieu's reserved tone lies in his commitment to moderation. Given the West's continuing vulnerability to extremism of various types, Montesquieu's moderate teaching on the need for moderation in corrections remains pressingly relevant. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Waller R. Newell inTyrants: A History of Power, Injustice, and Terrorexplores how ideas, and the philosophers responsible for them, can aid us in understanding tyranny. In the process, Newell also broaches the possibility that the ideas of these thinkers actually shape succeeding political events. Although the second part, entitled “City of God or City of Man? The Tyrant as Modern State Builder,” has an extensive cast of characters, its fulcrum is the combination of Niccolò Machiavelli, the Florentine writer, and Henry VIII, the English ruler. Newell raises the question of whether the writer presented the ruler with the blueprint for overturning the rule of the Catholic Church in England. Machiavelli would thus be the teacher of the modernizing tyrant. A reader is left to wonder whether, in Newell's assessment, the articulation of Machiavelli's fundamental insight that the world can and should be remade by the human will does not lead necessarily to ever deepening violations which characterize totalitarian tyranny. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A rapid, cost-effective diagnostic test for the detection of acute HIV-1 infection is highly desired. Isothermal amplification techniques, such as reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP), exhibit characteristics that are ideal for the development of a rapid nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) because they are quick, easy to perform and do not require complex, dedicated equipment and laboratory space. In this study, we assessed the ability of the HIV-1 RT-LAMP assay to detect acute HIV infection as compared to a representative rapid antibody test and several FDA-approved laboratory-based assays. The HIV-1 RT-LAMP assay detected seroconverting individuals one to three weeks earlier than a rapid HIV antibody test and up to two weeks earlier than a lab-based antigen/antibody (Ag/Ab) combo enzyme immunoassay (EIA). RT-LAMP was not as sensitive as a lab-based qualitative RNA assay, which could be attributed to the significantly smaller nucleic acid input volume. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of detecting acute HIV infection using the RT-LAMP assay. The availability of a rapid NAAT, such as the HIV-1 RT-LAMP assay, at the point of care (POC) or in laboratories that do not have access to large platform NAAT could increase the percentage of individuals who receive an acute HIV infection status or confirmation of their HIV status, while immediately linking them to counseling and medical care. In addition, early knowledge of HIV status could lead to reduced high-risk behavior at a time when individuals are at a higher risk for transmitting the virus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have pointed to Montesquieu's influence on Rousseau's work generally. Other scholars, who focus more intently on the Letter to d'Alembert, discern a crucial but limited influence of Montesquieu in two of Rousseau's teachings there: first, that some practices, including the theatre, can be appropriate and even wholesome for some societies, while noxious for others; and second, that mores are important in determining what types of laws and institutions a given people can tolerate and maintain. Careful consideration of Rousseau's Letter in light of Montesquieu's Persian Letters and Spirit of the Laws reveals a much more pervasive influence, however. Rousseau's depictions of the theatre as well as his discussions of the role of women in both French and English society reveal that the Letter bears a striking resemblance to, and, in fact, appears to be a response to, aspects of Montesquieu's thought. Montesquieu's captivating depictions of the sociability that the French theatre can engender was surely an obstacle for Rousseau's opposition to its influence in Geneva. In resisting such influence, Rousseau counters many of Montesquieu's specific arguments and judgements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on American watercolorist Walter Inglis Anderson's portrayals of plant life in murals: "Walter Anderson painted auras around humans, animals, and plants in his murals to express his reverence for life and nature. With the sensibility of a nature mystic he cared more about nature than about art and sought, in a lifelong search for transcendence, to merge with nature through his process of “realization”...Anderson’s portrayals of plant life in these murals reveal his keen sense of the essential differences between individual species, of the diversity of species and landscapes, and the place of species in communities. However, beyond magnificently conveying his skills as a naturalist, Anderson reveals his highly developed mystical sense of the natural world in his work.

Offers a critical examination of the most elaborate exposition of J.G.A. Pocock's `The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition,' the treatment of the `Discourses.' Pocock's defense of his presentation of Machiavelli's thought.

Focus on Machiavelli's assessment of Cesare Borgia in `The Prince' for interpreting his view of politics. Portrait of Cesare Borgia; Uncertain role of Cesare in `The Prince'; Machiavelli's concern with the Church's ruinous influence on Italy; Treatment of the Papacy; Political vision.

Transmission of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is ongoing in many communities throughout the United States. Although case-based and syndromic surveillance are critical for monitoring the pandemic, these systems rely on persons obtaining testing or reporting a COVID-19-like illness. Using serologic tests to detect the presence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies is an adjunctive strategy that estimates the prevalence of past infection in a population. During April 28-May 3, 2020, coinciding with the end of a statewide shelter-in-place order, CDC and the Georgia Department of Public Health conducted a serologic survey in DeKalb and Fulton counties in metropolitan Atlanta to estimate SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in the population. A two-stage cluster sampling design was used to randomly select 30 census blocks in each county, with a target of seven participating households per census block. Weighted estimates were calculated to account for the probability of selection and adjusted for age group, sex, and race/ethnicity. A total of 394 households and 696 persons participated and had a serology result; 19 (2.7%) of 696 persons had SARS-CoV-2 antibodies detected. The estimated weighted seroprevalence across these two metropolitan Atlanta counties was 2.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.4-4.5). Non-Hispanic black participants more commonly had SARS-CoV-2 antibodies than did participants of other racial/ethnic groups (p<0.01). Among persons with SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, 13 (weighted % = 49.9; 95% CI = 24.4-75.5) reported a COVID-19-compatible illness,* six (weighted % = 28.2; 95% CI = 11.9-53.3) sought medical care for a COVID-19-compatible illness, and five (weighted % = 15.7; 95% CI = 5.1-39.4) had been tested for SARS-CoV-2 infection, demonstrating that many of these infections would not have been identified through case-based or syndromic surveillance. The relatively low seroprevalence estimate in this report indicates that most persons in the catchment area had not been infected with SARS-CoV-2 at the time of the survey. Continued preventive measures, including social distancing, consistent and correct use of face coverings, and hand hygiene, remain critical in controlling community spread of SARS-CoV-2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since 2014, the recommended laboratory testing algorithm for diagnosing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection has included a supplemental HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation test to confirm infection type on the basis of the presence of type-specific antibodies (1). Correctly identifying HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections is vital because their epidemiology and clinical management differ. To describe the percentage of diagnoses for which an HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation test result was reported and to categorize HIV type based on laboratory test results, 2010-2017 data from CDC's National HIV Surveillance System (NHSS) were analyzed. During 2010-2017, a substantial increase in the number of HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation test results were reported to NHSS, consistent with implementation of the HIV laboratory-based testing algorithm recommended in 2014. However, >99.9% of all HIV infections identified in the United States were categorized as HIV-1, and the number of HIV-2 diagnoses (mono-infection or dual-infection) remained extremely low (<0.03% of all HIV infections). In addition, the overall number of false positive HIV-2 test results produced by the HIV-1/HIV-2 differentiation increased. The diagnostic value of a confirmatory antibody differentiation test in a setting with sensitive and specific screening tests and few HIV-2 infections might be limited. Evaluation and consideration of other HIV tests approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that might increase efficiencies in the CDC and Association of Public Health Laboratories-recommended HIV testing algorithm are warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Zoonotic transmission of simian retroviruses in West-Central Africa occurring in primate hunters has resulted in pandemic spread of human immunodeficiency viruses (HIVs) and human T-lymphotropic viruses (HTLVs). While simian foamy virus (SFV) and simian T- lymphotropic virus (STLV)-like infection were reported in healthy persons exposed to nonhuman primates (NHPs) in West-Central Africa, less is known about the distribution of these viruses in Western Africa and in hospitalized populations. We serologically screened for SFV and STLV infection using 1,529 specimens collected between 1985 and 1997 from Côte d’Ivoire patients with high HIV prevalence. PCR amplification and analysis of SFV, STLV, and HIV/SIV sequences from PBMCs was used to investigate possible simian origin of infection. We confirmed SFV antibodies in three persons (0.2%), two of whom were HIV-1-infected. SFV polymerase (pol) and LTR sequences were detected in PBMC DNA available for one HIV-infected person. Phylogenetic comparisons with new SFV sequences from African guenons showed infection likely originated from a Chlorocebus sabaeus monkey endemic to Côte d’Ivoire. 4.6% of persons were HTLV seropositive and PCR testing of PBMCs from 15 HTLV seroreactive persons identified nine with HTLV-1 and one with HTLV-2 LTR sequences. Phylogenetic analysis showed that two persons had STLV-1-like infections, seven were HTLV-1, and one was an HTLV-2 infection. 310/858 (53%), 8/858 (0.93%), and 18/858 (2.1%) were HIV-1, HIV-2, and HIV-positive but undifferentiated by serology, respectively. No SIV sequences were found in persons with HIV-2 antibodies (n = 1) or with undifferentiated HIV results (n = 7). We document SFV, STLV-1-like, and dual SFV/HIV infection in Côte d’Ivoire expanding the geographic range for zoonotic simian retrovirus transmission to West Africa. These findings highlight the need to define the public health consequences of these infections. Studying dual HIV-1/SFV infections in immunocompromised populations may provide a new opportunity to better understand SFV pathogenicity and transmissibility in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In August 2012, the Houston Department of Health contacted CDC regarding the rare transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) likely by sexual contact between two women. The case was investigated, and laboratory testing confirmed that the woman with newly diagnosed HIV infection had a virus virtually identical to that of her female partner, who was diagnosed previously with HIV and who had stopped receiving antiretroviral treatment in 2010. This report describes this case of HIV infection, likely acquired by female-to-female sexual transmission during the 6-month monogamous relationship of the HIV-discordant couple (one negative, one positive). The woman with newly acquired infection did not report any other recognized risk factors for HIV infection, and the viruses infecting the two women had ≥ 98% sequence identity in three genes. The couple had not received any preventive counseling before acquisition of the virus by the woman who had tested negative for HIV. HIV-discordant couples should receive counseling regarding safer sex practices, and HIV-infected partners should be linked to and retained in medical care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents the case a 46 year-old Texan woman who acquired human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection through sexual contact with another woman. The couple reported having unprotected oral and vaginal contact and described their contact as at times rough. Other risk factors for this rare transmission of HIV are discussed, including a history of injection drug use (IDU).

• Xpert HIV‐1 Viral Load is a simplified, automated, single-use quantitative assay. • Cobas and Xpert VLs were highly correlated (R2 = 0.994). • Xpert VL detected 97.9 % of established infections, and specificity was 99.80 %. • Xpert VL detected 90 % and 98.5 % of early and later acute infections, respectively. • Xpert VL performs proficiently for quantitative and qualitative uses. Cepheid's Xpert HIV‐1 Viral Load (Xpert VL), a simplified, automated, single-use quantitative assay used with the GeneXpert System, is not FDA approved. Using stored plasma, we conducted a study to assess the ability of Xpert VL to quantify viral load relative to the Roche COBAS AmpliPrep/COBAS TaqMan HIV-1 (Cobas VL) and to examine the use of the Xpert VL as a qualitative diagnostic test. Following HIV-1 viral stock dilutions, we conducted a probit analysis to identify the concentration where 95 % of specimens had quantified VLs. We also examined Xpert and Cobas log VL correlation in linearity panels; compared the proportion of 220 seroconverter specimens with virus detected using McNemar's test; and tested specimens from persons with untreated, established HIV-1 infection (n=149) and uninfected persons (n=497). Furthermore, we examined Xpert VL as a qualitative test in seroconverter specimens with early (n=20) and later (n=68) acute infections. At 1.80 log10 copies/mL, 95 % of specimens had quantifiable virus using Xpert VL. Xpert and Cobas VLs were highly correlated (R2=0.994). The proportion of seroconverter specimens with virus detected using Cobas and with Xpert VL was not statistically different (p=0.0578). Xpert VL detected 97.9 % of established infections, and specificity was 99.80 % (95 % CI 98.87%–99.99%). Xpert VL detected 90 % and 98.5 % of early and later acute infections, respectively. If approved, Xpert VL could allow U.S. laboratories that cannot bring on large, complex testing platforms to conduct HIV monitoring. An approval for diagnostic use may provide timely identification of HIV infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]