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The article presents abstracts for invited papers that are to published in the periodical. The article "An Experimental Test of the Bowley Bilateral Monopoly Model," by Laurence E. Fouraker and Sidney Siegel explains that scholar A.L. Bowley's price leadership models yield specific price-quantity solutions for the bilateral monopoly situation These solutions do not coincide with those derived from models of bilateral monopoly behavior conducted under different circumstances. An experimental representation of the Bowley conditions was developed. In another article "Bargaining "Face". Some Experiments in Bargaining Behavior," by Morton Deutsch the nature of bargaining situations is discussed. Two general propositions about conditions affecting the likelihood of a bargaining agreement are presented The role of "social face" in determining bargaining behavior is considered. The thesis is advanced that the latent content of much bargaining centers about "social face." The relationship between the use of threat and social face is analyzed. Results of some experimental studies of the effect of thread upon interpersonal bargaining are presented.

The article discusses some basic concepts related to skill acquisition with practical applications to teaching. The first part of the paper which is organized into three sections identifies the motor patterns to which this working model of skill acquisition is pertaining. The second section presents the nature of skill acquisition and in the last section, application is made to teaching strategies. During early stages of skill acquisition, some aspects of teacher behavior, such as the added complexity of structuring open skill environments are affected by the type of movement involved. However, during stage two, the type of movement to be learned determines the nature of teacher behavior. Therefore, the analysis of the nature of the skill to be learned is required for the effective teaching.

The paper concerns a technique of Work Sampling in which the sample, instead of being an immediate recognition of the state of the activity, is extended over a fixed period of time. In this time period all states of the activity which fall completely within the sample period are recorded, with the lengths of time of their occurrence.
The paper discusses an experimental approach to a study of such a sampling system. The effects of the length of the fixed period of time of the sample and the number of samples are discussed and illustrated with some experimental results.
Consistencies in the behaviour of the histograms of the samples, when compared with the original distribution built into the experimental model, suggest that reliable methods of estimating the distribution of the original population from sampled values may be practicable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While the activity of marketing research can be fruitfully viewed within a statistical decision theoretic model, relatively little is known concerning the descriptive aspects of how people-managers or consumers-revise probabilities in the light of new information. This paper reports the results of a behavioral study in probability revision and the implications of these findings for the operational use of decision theoretic concepts in prescriptive and descriptive choice-making models [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the dissolution of the patient-society dualism. But in science dualisms can be dissolved only by theoretical formulations of such character as to bring both members of the dualism within reach of one set of invariants. While anthropologists and sociologists have tried to eliminate the society individual dualism from their thinking, it persists in the clinic where the psychiatrist deals largely with individuals and not with social processes. The psychiatrist's daily experience impresses upon him the fact that many current statements about the nature of society and its relation to behavior disorder are not liable to help him in treating emotionally disturbed persons. Since, however, behavior patterns are given final form by social processes, it becomes the task of science to bring together understandings of social and intrapsychic processes so that both can be used in the clinical situation. This requires a set of invariants that will have meaning in the frame of reference of both the social sciences and psychiatry and the establishment of one has been attempted in this article.

A nonverbal reproductive recall task, for which the possibility of a nonverbal mediator was provided, was administered to 40 first grade and 40 kindergarten Ss, 20 Ss at each grade level were observed in each of 2 conditions which differed in the strength of the suggestion to produce the nonverbal mediator. More first grade than kindergarten Ss spontaneously produced mediators while more kindergarten Ss never produced mediators. Kindergarteners required stronger suggestions to produce mediators than did first graders. The results support a production deficiency rather than a mediation deficiency hypothesis for young children's behavior in this type of task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on a study related to a crucial test of extra-species suggestibility in chimpanzee. The experiment was divided into two parts. The one, preliminary and without suggestion; the other, with suggestion. On four successive days, just before the regular noon feeding, a strip of filter paper was offered to each subject through the wire netting of its cage. This portion of the experiment was preparatory to measurement of degree of suggestibility. After the first day of preliminary work responsiveness to the paper diminished rapidly, as indicated alike by verbal descriptions of behavior and by numerical ratings, the totals for which ranged from 36 on the first day to 20 on the fourth.

The article discusses the importance of analysis of motor skills in physical education. Analysis of motor skills are of much importance for a physical educator, because skilled interception is very often involved in physical activity and sport. Interception behavior is described on the basis of coincidence-anticipation. Judgments and acquisitions by a performer occur in the coincidence-anticipation situation. For accurate performance, a participant should ensure that his expectancy is correct. Motor skills need to be studied and analyzed from different angles for formulating teaching strategies in physical education.

The design of mechanical feeders is very much a matter for experience. This paper illustrates that by experiment and synthesis better understanding of the behaviour of such devices can be achieved. Although the work specifically relates to a particular feeder handling simple cylinders, the exercise is capable of wider interpretation and the techniques evaluated could be applied in a wider sense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The topic of behavioral objectives has recently received considerable attention in the academic community. This paper contains a comprehensive overview of issues and explores the relevance of using the behavioral objective framework for teaching quantitative methods (QM) to undergraduate business administration students. Included in the paper are (1) a discussion of the nature and meaning of behavioral objectives, (2) arguments for and against their use, (3) a rationale for their use in a QM course, and (4) a series of examples demonstrating the use of behavioral objectives in a quantitative course. The evidence—consisting of expert opinion from professionals who have successfully used behavioral objectives for teaching quantitative material, the logic of the arguments for behavioral objectives, consideration of arguments against objectives along with rebuttal to these arguments, and the available empirical studies—indicates that behavioral objectives do appear to offer considerable potential for improving QM teaching. The use of behavioral objectives is worthy of thoughtful consideration by QM teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although sociologists have long concerned themselves in one way or an- other with conformity, neither they nor psychologists have made systematic paper and pencil studies of conforming behavior. The chief weakness of the paper in any study of behavior is that the symbolized responses of a subject in a test situation may not truly indicate his response in a situation calling for non-symbolized action. This weakness does not render paper and pencil studies worthless, however. In order to determine the cross-sectional consistency of individual conformity, each subject's number of conformity answers out of the twenty-five situations was totaled. Each male individual's score was then placed in his appropriate category for age, community, and occupation, and the arithmetic mean and median computed for each grouping. In the absence of any technique in the present study to parcel out these possible factors, it is assumed for the present that part of the variation in the amount of cross- sectional consistency of conformity responses displayed by individuals of various groupings is due to the effect of prevailing ideologies and conduct norms on individual behavior.

Cognitive styles have been described as the distinctive ways in which individuals come to grips with reality. This research paper holds that such styles are manifestations of different response probabilities or response strengths in certain types or classes of behaviors. A cognitive style may manifest itself as a directive influence on behavior, i.e., certain responses have a greater probability of occurrence in ambiguous situations, or as an ability to resist disruption under interference conditions such as distraction. It is assumed that these response characteristics are common to responses within certain classes of behavior. A specific style or pattern appears, then, whenever a particular class of behavior is elicited. The present paper describes certain behavioral classes within which specific cognitive styles may be expected. Researchers have previously demonstrated a cognitive style involving conceptual and perceptual-motor classes of behavior. Subsequent unpublished work, however, has suggested that this style, which is termed conceptual versus perceptual-motor dominance, is limited to conceptual and perceptual-motor tasks which are novel, difficult, or concentration-demanding.

The article reports on the contemporary learning theories. The learning theories are considered to give little contributions to the problem of the analysis of language acquisition. The lack of contribution from learning theory is because of the problem of raised by the reports published within the paper. A tradition in learning theory considers language as the same as the other behaviors. Language learning and its problems are also considered by learning theorists before, as a matter of individual adjustment on the part of the organism.

Considerable attention has been given recently to the perplexing problem of the relationship between attitudes and behavior (Ehrlich, 1969; Deutscher, 1969; Warner and DeFleur, 1969; Ajzen et al., 1970; Lastrucci, 1970; Tarter, 1970). Methodological issues have been debated, the lack of congruence between attitudes and behavior has been examined, and a variety of solutions have been offered. We are told, for example, that the continuing poor correlation between measured attitudes and overt behavior requires us to search for the intervening variable or variables which apparently obtain (Ehrlich, 1969); or to employ the "direct observation" of the phenomenon under investigation rather than try to extrapolate from paper-and-pencil tests to behavior (Deutscher, 1969); or to develop theories that, in turn, enable us to find indicators that are more valid than the paper-and-pencil type (Lastrueci, 1970); or to simply admit that attitudes as "presently conceptualized play no real role in behavior" (Tarter, 1970). A number of important aspects of attitude research, however, have been obscured or omitted in these discussions. For the surprising aspect of the situation is not, as has often been implied, the lack of congruence between attitudes and behavior, but the persistent use of research designs that are inappropriate for the complexity of the subject under investigation. Further, it is surprising that researchers have failed to draw out other important implications of their research. That is, the fact that an attitude does not lead directly to a behavior does not justify the assertion that attitudes play no role in behavior, or that attitude research lacks significant implications for social life. The basis for this latter statement will be shown below in a discussion of the values of attitude research. It may be that inadequate research designs, valued for their simplicity rather than their appropriateness, are a manifestation of the "publish or perish" syndrome. In any ease, this paper attempts to outline the problems and the values of attitude research, and to demonstrate thereby that such research is of great significance for the understanding of social phenomena. If that significance seems minimized by those studies that have found poor correlation between attitudes and behavior, the fault lies both in the failure to create research designs that reflect the complexity of the problem and in the tendency to exalt the importance of the proximate causes of overt behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper attempts to show that the myth of the primal horde is of use in that: (1) It helps to account for behavior that is observable at formal meetings, (2) sheds some light on the earlier socialization process and (3) can give some insight into the operation of wider social groupings. This obviously is a formidable task, beyond the scope of any one paper. The author discusses the university seminar of the formal kind where there is a chairman and sometimes a vote of thanks. He hope to show that the myth of the primal horde not merely explains what goes on but can even be said to describe to some extent behavior at such meetings. There is also an attempt to show how the ideas first used in the context of the university seminar can be applied to formal settings that are apparently very different namely those of the military parade and the religious service. Formal behavior, according to the view expressed here, owes its significance to the triumph it celebrates. It must therefore be essentially unstable for where the triumph is too complete there will the need for defensive morality be dissipated.

The article presents information related to the characteristics of the behavior of agents of law both administrative and judicial who in their work interact directly with members of the community. It is a basic assumption in this paper that agents of sanction exist in all relatively permanent social systems. These agents may either act as privates or a formal organization or not; some may act individually as interacting directly with ordinary members of the social system, either this is an entire community, an association, an industrial organization or a small, informal group. One shall be dealing with the behavior of these agents, bringing into focus the official behavior, which is part of the face-to face interaction between the agents and the other members of the social system concerned. Another basic assumption of the paper is that face-to face disapproving behavior of agents in all social systems have interesting common traits, which with profit may be analyzed comparatively by means of a fairly general theory of sanction behavior. Initially it is an open question whether such a theory can be considered identical to or deduced from a general theory of action.

In this paper a normative model of social processes for decision making was presented. This model represented a slightly elaborated and refined version of a model presented in Vroom and Yetton. We share the previous authors' view that such models are far from perfect but can serve a useful function in stimulating research which, in time, will be reflected in better models. The latter half of this paper was devoted to questions related to how managers do select decision processes—to the factors which influence the degree to which they share their decision-making power with their subordinates. In pursuing these questions, we also relied heavily on the previous work of Vroom and Yetton by using a set of standardized cases selected in accordance with an experimental design. Each case depicted a leader faced with a problem to solve, and subjects were asked to assume his role and to select from a specified list of decision processes the one they would employ. The major difference from Vroom and Yetton was in the nature of the experimental design used in the construction of the "problem set." Whereas Vroom and Yetton's design utilized 30 "group problems" and five decision processes, the design used here provided for seven decision processes and 24 group and 24 individual problems. This design permitted the additional exploration of relationships between behavior on each kind of problem, and of the consistency of the behavior on the latter with the normative model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reports the results of a pilot study that sought to merge two lines of scientific approach. Brief paper and pencil psychobehavioral assessment was completed on subjects to determine whether the psychobehavioral variables could differentiate between high and low risk subjects and subjects with previous documented myocardial infarction from those who are still healthy. Specifiable measures of behavior and coronary risk status appear to be related. Furthermore, a basic pattern of interpersonal recall was associated with coronary risk status.

The article presents information on inventories, production smoothing, and the accelerator. In this note a simple model of production smoothing that does not include "inventory smoothing" is presented and fitted to monthly data for six industries and four cross-section samples for one industry. Paul Darling and Michael Lovell argue that production smoothing does not represent an acceptable substitute to the flexible accelerator. Both hypotheses are consistent with maximizing behavior, and "the choice between the two alternative approaches must be resolved empirically." In choosing such a plan, the firm must balance the costs involved in changing the rate of output against those of inventory investment. If there are no costs of changing the level of output, the firm will produce in each period an amount equal to expected sales in that period. The results presented in this paper indicate that for the samples studied the behavior of inventories is inconsistent with that implied by the accelerator model and can be successfully explained by the production-smoothing hypothesis.

Glossolalia tape-recorded from four groups - English- and Spanish-speaking showed characteristics common to all groups. It is a noncommunicative behavior of vocalization. Although the phonetic inventory and the grouping of sounds vary somewhat from group to group, these are stereotyped within the group and rigidly adhered to. An analysis of the phonology, accent pattern, and intonation shows the individual utterance to have a threshold of onset, a brief rising gradient of intensity, a peak, and a final, often precipitous decay. This paper proposes that this agreement, despite cultural diversity and difference in language, exists because glossolalia is an artifact of a dissociative state termed trance. A brief characterization of the role of thug little researched state is attempted on the basis of field experiences, and a comparison with similar manifestations in other areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an earlier paper in this journal,* the author suggested that the processes of attitude change underlying mass communication impact are of two kinds: with low involvement to persuasive stimuli one might look for gradual shifts in perceptual structure, aided by repetition, activated by behavioral choice situations, and followed at some time by attitude change, while with high involvement one could look instead [or the classic and familiar conflict of ideas at the level of conscious opinion and attitude that precedes changes in behavior. The present paper describes the development and application of a workable tool to measure this involvement, a necessary step in the study of communication impact along these lines is to proceed further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, are included three rather diverse themes which have a common origin in a research program on psychological stress, which is still in progress. The occasion for the first theme was the concern with the measurement of motivation, which is felt as an important source of such individual differences. The second theme, related to this last-made point, is that the traditional search for main effects of independent variables in stress, experimentation must give way to analysis of interactions among variables, if such experimentation is to be most meaningful and realistic. It is demonstrated that the influence of a given variable in the determination of behavior is a function of the context of other variables in which it occurs. Two classes of potentially interacting variables were discussed; attributes of the individual; and characteristics of the situation to which the individual is exposed. The third, and last, theme emphasizes the contribution which developmental psychology can make to the understanding of response to stressor conditions. On the one hand, differences in the developmental level of individual-including individuals of equivalent chronological age-should be a significant factor in determining such response. In addition, the use of tasks which may be developmentally analyzed should provide meaningful dimensions for evaluating stress responses.

The article focuses on research and clinical applications of the doll-play interview. There is a real need for a technique which permits the exploration of the child's feelings in a fairly short period of time, and yet is simple and flexible enough to be used with very young children, and adaptable to investigation of a large variety of problems. It should be possible to obtain specific information, which can be recorded easily. Furthermore, requirements of high reliability and validity should be met. The purpose of this paper was to describe a doll-play interviewing procedure and to summarize information about reliability and validity. Its applicability in clinical diagnosis and research as a flexible tool for attacking a large variety of problems and producing specific quantifiable data was discussed. Methods for increasing its value were pointed out. It is concluded that the doll-play interview can be a valuable technique for studying children's behavior clinically and experimentally. The doll-play interview takes place in a play situation, in which dolls are asked questions. The child answers for the dolls and is encouraged to manipulate the dolls as well as to give verbal answers.

The article informs that one of the two most important and influential environments for the child is the classroom in which he lives during a part of each day. His relations with his teacher and with his peers are two major aspects of his school environment. This paper reports a research exploration of the development and maintenance of the classroom socio-emotional structure in a sample of 39 elementary classrooms. The paper also explores some of the mental health correlates of the child's position in this socio-emotional structure, which in turn suggest focal points for diagnosis of socio-emotional problems in the classroom situation and formulation of therapeutic strategy in working toward the improvement of classroom mental health. This brief discussion of teachers' behavior should not be construed to mean that the teachers involved in the study were "playing favorites." Rather, it is thought that teachers, faced with the task of teaching youngsters in classroom groups and necessarily having to maintain order to do so, must respond critically to disruptive behavior, and respond quite naturally with affection to little girls who seem to be asking for it and apparently getting little from their peers.

The paper provides a conclusion to a series of articles about the approaches to the problems of war and peace. One paper distinguishes between those who do research in terms of governments and those who do research in terms of peoples. It is possible to make another distinction which overlaps to some degree the first two. This is a distinction between those who approach the problem in terms of macroscopic units, such as the nation, and those who essentially use the individual as their unit of analysis. Of the papers presented, one came close to the first type of emphasis. Operational research and regulatory research, would also fall in this category. Along with this difference in terms of the units of analysis used in the two approaches, there appears also to be a difference in the assumption about the nature of the phenomenon of war. Those who deal with the individual tend to conceive of war as a deviation that essentially occurs because of some failure in the mechanisms of maintaining peace. The extreme of this position is represented by the psychoanalytic approach suggesting that war is an aspect of irrational behavior, related to irrelevant, personal motivations, usually traceable to childhood experiences.

The article presents several abstracts related to business management and accounting, including "Decision-Making Behavior Under Conditions of Risk and Uncertainty: What Have We Learned from Experimental Studies?", "New Departures in Management Information Systems", "Survey and Evaluation of Recent Developments in Accounting", "Theories of Human Search and Choice: Their Implications for Systems of Control" and "Dynamic Programming as a Philosophy of Accounting."

In this article the authors comment on an article by researchers Steven Box and Julienne Ford. Relying heavily on data derived from self-report delinquency studies, they conclude that the available evidence, while contradictory and confused, cannot be said to support the hypothesis that social class is negatively related to criminal behaviour. On the basis of this conclusion they then proceed to launch an attack on social labelling theory. The authors first lists a number of serious errors in their review of self-report delinquency studies. Following this they present their own review, the conclusion of which differs significantly from that of Box and Ford. Finally they argue that their paper appears to contain a concept of crime that is simply not viable. In developing their argument Box and Ford clearly find themselves on the horns of a dilemma. Their less than consistent efforts at specifying the form of behaviour under consideration is perhaps indicative of their confusion. On the one hand they are anxious to advance general statements that will embrace the activities of adults as well as juveniles. Yet the evidence on which they must rely is confined as they themselves readily admit--almost exclusively to the activities of juveniles or adolescents.

The analysis of population's impact on the economy has frequently been developed in the context of the dependency rate argument. The dependency rate, typically measured as the proportion of the total population outside the labour force, is a summary statistic which is intended to capture the influence of a population's age structure on the process of economic growth. This paper focuses on only one- and possibly the least understood - of the dependency rate economic influences, the saving rate. Indeed, at certain stages of economic development, the negative saving rate of the elderly could well be greater than the rate for those who have not yet entered the labour force. A debate on the relative merits of the competing models is outside the scope of the present paper. However, it is important to recognize that the interpretation of the economic impact of the dependency rate depends critically on the specific model employed. There are several modifications to the "naive" dependency-rate argument as it pertains to saving which appear critical to an analysis of this demographic statistic as a proxy for economic behaviour.

This paper explores the effects of labour force participation, urbanization, and education on the fertility attitudes and behaviour of young women. The analysis is based on interviews with 3,590 women in Taiwan, aged 18-39 in the autumn of 1971. The survey differs from previous KAP type surveys in Taiwan in including both married and unmarried women. The results show that when education is controlled, neither work experience nor urban-rural background has much effect on the desired number of children. Work experience does affect the timing of marriage and childbearing so that women who have worked away from home tend to have fewer children at a given age than those who have not had this work experience. The greatest effect is for women who continue to work after marriage, who make up only a small proportion of married women. Since these women desire almost as many children as those who do not work, their lower actual fertility may be only due to a temporary postponement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes intentions and expectations in differential residential selection among 761 families who had chosen to move but not yet done so, within or to greater Toronto, concentrating on the wife's viewpoint although comparing it as well to the husband's. Wives appear at face value to assess alternatives in the selection process rationally, to be aware of limitations in housing and location they will experience, and to have expectations about behavioral changes consistant with the degree of change represented by their destination environments. Husband-wife differences suggest the possibility of differential post-move adjustment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports the methods used to investigate a problem in social change. in order to investigate how internalized social values and interests affect the direction of the historical process two instruments were developed. The first purports to measure general orientations to change and to resistance to change along with preferences for making choices in terms of general values or special interests; the second investigates styles of behavior in response to pressures to change when the pressures are historically significant and the respondents playing significant roles in the situation facing change. The instruments were tested on a sample of priests from the Boston Archdiocese where, along with all parish structures in the Church today, roles are being pressured toward change of behavior long institutionalized in the areas of command- obedience relations, social responsibility, independence training for children, respect for the intellectual life and motivational awareness. This paper handles specifically the methodological problems of operationalizing the abstractions "values" and "interests," and the use of historically significant stimuli in place of artificial laboratory situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper seeks to assess the utility of the transactional model of individual stress. According to the logic of the model, whether persons manifest stress is a multiplicative function of both situational and individual characteristics. The paper briefly discusses possible advantages of the perspective over other frames of reference. Then it describes a pilot study designed to determine whether hypotheses based on the transactional model could be supported empirically. Utilizing interview data from a small probability sample of all adults in the state of Missouri, scales were constructed by an improved method of item analysis for use as indicators of variations in stress and the situational and individual factors. Comparing stress scores by situational and individual variables produced results indicative of a multiplicative relationship and thus supportive of theories derived from the transactional perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objectives of this paper are to propose a new concept for use in attitude studies; to explain one way in which this concept has been operationalized; to suggest an hypothesis for use in further studies of this concept; and to present some preliminary research findings concerning this hypothesis. Social scientists have long been interested in differences and similarities between people holding "liberal" and "conservative" attitudes toward various issues and problems of the day. Countless numbers of research studies have been conducted in this area. Perhaps most interesting among these studies have been several attempts to determine whether people tend to have a general liberal-conservative orientation, or whether we must expect their attitudes to vary in different situations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper advances the claim that personality variables can explain peoples' behavior even though that behavior varies from situation to situation. The argument is developed in the course of a critique of several interpretative reviews of personality research. Scholar W. Mischel asserts that the hypothesis that persons exhibit large trans-situational consistencies in their behavior is simply and generally not supported by the available data. According to Mischel, the unenlightened proponents of trans-situational personality consistency include nonprofessional users of ordinary language trait names such as aggressive, honest and friendly who reify these attributions. Dynamic personality theorists who speak of some inner or intra-psychic features of personality such as ego strength or defensiveness, are likewise void of convincing empirical support. Both of Mischel's opponents are purportedly committed to the view that response constancies will emerge in spite of situational variation. In the course of the argument presented here the claim will be made that situational specificity of response itself is a personality variable. Mischel's assertion is thus regarded as a proposition that ultimately is a misleading summary of previous findings and an abortive guide for future personality research.

The term "dependence" is customarily used as a personality construct. In this usage it denotes the degree to which one person requires others to satisfy his needs, its obverse is independence, a state in which the person is able to generate his own gratifications. Interpersonal dependence, then, is flexible in a way in which dependence as a personality attribute is not. The research reported in this paper is based on the John W. Thibaut and H.H. Kelley system, which speciefies certain consequences of high interpersonal dependence. Before applying the dependence formulation to the B-S interaction in laboratory experiments, it will be necessary to summarize the position of Thibaut and Kelley. They view a person as having a repertoire of behavior sequences which comprises all the responses he is capable of enacting. When two people interact they select behavior sequences from their repertoires. Thibaut and Kelley define interpersonal power with the same concepts used to define dependence. A person's degree of power in a relationship is measured by the range of outcomes through which he actually does or potentially could move his partner. All interpersonal relationships involve some degree of dependence and power. This paper describes a situation in which high dependence is created by causing an individual to endure some very poor outcomes in the relationship while he knows that some very good ones are also attainable.

The article presents information about several books related to sociology. "Diverging Parallels: A Comparison of American and European Thought and Action," edited by A.N.J. den Hollander, is a collection of papers presented at two meetings of the European Association for American Studies, ferreting out likenesses and differences in European and American cultures. Comparisons touch war and diplomacy, education, conceptions of the tragic, romantic and heroic, the idea of evil and thought processes. "Religion's Influence in Contemporary Society: Readings in the Sociology of Religion," edited by Joseph E. Faulkner, is a judicious selection of theoretical and empirical studies arranged under four headings: efforts to delimit the field of study, religion in the church: members, leadership, and organizational structure, the church in society, and religion and social change: urbanization, secularization, and the future. "Black Psyche: the Modal Personality Patterns of Black Americans," edited by Stanley S. Guterman, is a useful collection of materials that suggest the social construction of a modal personality among the U.S. blacks. Contributions, chiefly by sociologists, arc grouped under three headings: the social and historical backdrop, characteristics of the modal personality, and personality influences on behavior.

The present research attempts to determine if the notion of separate theories for prejudice and discrimination, as put forth by Rose, is viable. The paper examines, as a result of differential responses to selected situational variables, some of the reasons wily nonprejudiced subjects discriminate against blacks and prejudiced subjects do not. The situational variables (social constraint and social distance) were experimentally introduced in a field setting. The paper concludes by agreeing with Rose's contention that separate theories for prejudice and discrimination are necessary. However, the authors take exception with the idea that theories of discrimination are sufficient to explain discriminatory behavior. In particular, in order to better understand discriminatory behavior, the argument is set forth that instead of restricting the scope of investigation, as suggested by Rose, it should be enlarged by including other relevant variables which have been shown to have an impact on discriminatory behavior. Other studies have indicated that conformity tendencies are often involved in producing behaviors which are inconsistent with attitudes. It is suggested that some measures of these, as well as of attitudes, should be included in future studies of discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a common belief that children are better able than adults to learn a foreign language. This belief may be an illusion if children living in a foreign country learn the new language through play activity while their parents try to learn independently of physical behavior. Using Russian, this study compared the listening comprehension of 8-, 10- and 14-year-ole children, and college adults when each S was in physical action during retention tests. The results showed that (a) the adults were superior to the children of any age group at p < .0005; (b) the youngest children, the 8-year-olds, had the poorest retention; and (c) the 10- and 14-year-old children were intermediate between the adults and the 8-year-olds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is the office of theoretical investigation," said scholar Willard Gibbs, "to give the form in which the results of experiment may be expressed." If he had put "observation" for "experiment," Gibbs would have stated the purpose of the present paper. It is to provide one form in which may be ex- pressed what one knows about social organization. Please note, at the beginning, that more than one form is possible and that, in a limited space, the one suggested here can only be sketched out. The elements of social behavior. The present paper presupposes the direct observation of social behavior. It asks the devastating questions: Looking at the actions of men with eyes innocent of the usual preconceptions what does one see? What a simple classification can one start from in this field of fact? Attempting to answer, it sets up, as components of the conceptual scheme, individuals and three elements or determinants of the behavior of individuals in groups, which will be called operation, sentiment, and interaction.

Emotion is aroused when a stimulus activates two or more previously acquired action patterns in such a way as to produce what is called as "motor block." This results in the release of stored energy until the motor blockade is broken. This usually produces overt motor behavior, accompanied by the various kinds of "emotionally-toned consciousness" or "psychic states" called as fear, anger, sorrow, love, etc. It may result in adequate or inadequate behavior, adjustment or maladjustment; which, depends upon past experience and habits. Popularly, it is only inadequate response that is called "emotional," but adequate rational response is just as emotional. All action depends upon movement, and since emotion is merely the mechanism by which the organism is moved, all action requires an adequate amount of emotion, i.e., release of stored energy. The more blockage, the more emotion; it is like the building up of electric potential until the resistance is overcome and the spark "jumps the gap." Usually, emotional tension explodes into overt motor behavior, either rational or irrational, so that organismic equilibrium is restored. This may be called positive or overt emotion. If such an outcome does not take place, the energy may be turned in upon the organism itself.

In three studies responses of high and low fatalists to five different types of communications messages were compared. The five types of information considered were single reward, multiple reward, reward explanations, conformity, and nonsense information. Nutritional, political, and reading behaviors were considered. Two field experiments were conducted with male heads of households and a laboratory experiment was conducted with students. The high fatalists were motivated by reward explanation information. The low fatalists were motivated by single and multiple reward information more than the high fatalists. Responses of the high and low fatalists converged, at the highest motivation level, in response to reward explanation information. Fatalism accounted for more response variance than income, education, or race characteristics. The social significance of these findings is discussed in terms of: the need to motivate the high fatalists; who the high fatalists are; the growth of high fatalism; and the transferability of this paper's communication content findings to organizations dealing with problems of high fatalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the last two decades social anthropologists and sociologists have turned to the study of informal groups. Among the first empirical evidence of the interest were the famous Hawthorne research studies of researchers George Elton Mayo and Fritz J. Roethlisberger. Since these studies many others have been made of informal groups in community and institutional life. All of them, however, have lacked concern with individuals who are not bona fide members of cliques, but who interact with them. The focus of the paper is on these persons. In the article, they are called "fringers." The concept "fringer" should not be confused with that of the "marginal man," for the two are distinct concepts implying different categories of behavior. The "marginal man" shares the cultural life of two distinct people, whereas the "fringer" defines his own goals of behavior and disregards those of the group in favor of his own. Specifically, the paper proposes to analyze and describe the role of "fringers" in a state prison for women. Data used are from observations and personal interviews secured during the author's employment at the prison as director of religion, education and recreation from June through October 1930.

This article discusses issues regarding the boundary conditions for mathemagenic behaviors. There are three characteristics of questions that influence learning: their position in a text, the contiguity of questions and related content, and the type of question. The results of this study showed that time to solve the problem of retention increased with an increase in search. Another finding was that searching improved the retention of the names that were incidental to the sentences which had to be located. The data reviewed in this paper suggest that mathemagenic behaviors can be usefully viewed as components of an adaptive system in which these behaviors are modified by characteristics of two kinds of inputs: those that occur prior to encounters with the text and those that are characteristic of the text. Control of both of these classes of verbal events provides access to important mathemagenic behaviors.

The objectives of this paper are to examine the effects of incentive magnitude and motivational orientation upon choice behavior in a two-person non-zero-sum game. For reasons developed in the paper, high incentive magnitude or cooperative motivational orientation were hypothesized to lead to more cooperative play in a prisoner's dilemma game than were low incentive magnitude or competitive motivational orientation. These effects were demonstrated in an experiment of factorial design in which 108 Ss (54 pairs) were assigned randomly to the four experimental treatments. This experiment indicates that the strategic problem facing the experimental S in a two-person game is not completely specified by stating the "structure" of the nominal payoff matrix. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a system of categories for the analysis of the development of ideas in small discussion groups. The proposed system focuses on ideas rather than on behavior of individuals, and provides the basis for a more definitive analysis of this aspect of the group process than can be achieved with other current systems. It is hoped that this system will provide for other researchers a highly useful and usable instrument for the study of small groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article discusses the role of operant psychology in shaping behavior and learning. It has been found that effects help in the development of specific behaviors. Operant model is of great importance for physical education teachers and coaches. Operant psychology analyzes skill acquisition on the basis of the interaction between a performer and the environment, without considering intervening variables. Reinforcement of the learning patterns depend on time intervals and performers responses. Reinforcement is divided into two types: fixed and variable. A scientific analysis of the environmental variables can be done for skill acquisition. Topology and magnitude of a response are critical factors for the development of skilled behavior.

The article discusses the role of a teacher's behavior and learning in teaching. Teachers should themselves understand the subject matter to be taught before they teach. A teacher is considered as a facilitator of skill acquisition. In an investigation, teacher's verbal statements were recorded, and the statements were categorized by trained raters. The verbal behavior of the teachers was recorded and transcribed. The biggest difficulty was found in interpreting verbal messages that were vague. It was found that most of the teaching behaviors were directed towards learning. The teachers were also found to guide the students in the formulation of motor plans.