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BACKGROUND: Plant‐based beverages have recently seen a significant increase in market demand. However, many of these products suffer from poor emulsion stability and low protein content. Gums have commonly been used to enhance emulsion stability but they do not improve the amino acid profile. This study investigated the use of multiples plant proteins to enhance both the stability and nutritional value of plant‐based beverages. RESULT: Pea and rice bran proteins both enhanced emulsion stability. Pea protein enhanced the viscosity of the continuous phase whereas rice bran protein lowered interfacial tension. When applied synergistically, competitive adhesion occurred. Rice bran protein gradually displaced pea protein from the oil droplet surface as its concentration increased, leading to emulsion destabilization due to the displaced pea protein. The use of high‐pressure homogenization further enhanced the stability of the emulsion by unfolding protein partially. However, increasing homogenization pressure (>500 Bar) and homogenization cycle (>2 cycles) led to protein aggregation due to excessive exposure of its hydrophobic core. The emulsion formed was resistant to coalescence at 4 °C for 28 days and was stable under high pH and low ionic conditions. CONCLUSION: The synergistic combination of plant proteins and the effective utilization of co‐processing (homogenization) can enhance the functionality of the individual proteins significantly, leading to the formation of a stable emulsion. The use of plant protein mixture as a stabilizer not only improved the emulsion stability but also ensured a plant‐based beverage with a complete amino acid profile for the vegan community. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backgrounds: Glycerolysis, with its advantages of readily available raw materials, simple operation, and mild reaction conditions, is a primary method for producing diacylglycerol (DAG). However, enzymatic glycerolysis faces challenges such as high enzyme costs, low reuse efficiency, and poor stability. The study aims to develop a cost‐effective immobilized enzyme by covalently binding lipase to pre‐activated carriers through the selection of suitable lipases, carriers, and activating agents. The optimization is intended to improve the glycerolysis reaction for efficient DAG production. Results: Lipase CN‐TL (from Thermomyces lanuginosus) was selected through glycerolysis reaction and molecular docking to catalyze the glycerolysis reaction. Optimizing the immobilization method by covalently binding CN‐TL to poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE)‐preactivated resin LX‐201A resulted in the preparation of the immobilized enzyme TL‐PEGDGE‐LX. The immobilized enzyme retained over 90% of its initial activity after five consecutive reactions, demonstrating excellent reusability. The DAG content in the product remained at 84.8% of its initial level, further highlighting the enzyme's potential for reusability and its promising applications in the food and oil industries. Conclusions: The immobilized lipase TL‐PEGDGE‐LX, created by covalently immobilizing lipase CN‐TL on PEGDGE‐preactivated carriers, demonstrated broad applicability and excellent reusability. This approach offers an economical and convenient immobilization strategy for the enzymatic glycerolysis production of DAG. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compared with conventional plant oils, diacylglycerol (DAG)‐based fats exhibit a higher melting point and could serve as a solid base oil for preparing specialty fats. In this study, different chain length DAG‐based solid fats were prepared, and the influences of acyl groups on the physical property, crystal microstructure, and crystallization kinetics of the binary solid fat phase were explored. The slipping melting point (SMP) of obtained medium chain‐DAG (MCD‐fats), medium‐long chain‐DAG (MLCD‐fats), and long chain‐DAG (LCD‐fats) fats were 35.67, 40.70, and 52.30°C, and their original β′ crystal content were 46.3%, 56.1%, and 66.9%, respectively. The solid fat content (SFC) profiles and crystallization properties were significantly affected as the fatty acid chain length and acylglycerols compositions changes. The microstructure of crystal in DAG‐fats got denser slowly during storage. DAG can delay the translation of crystal form and stabilize β′ crystal form, which is related to their three‐dimensional crystalline network changes. The hardness of MCD‐fats and LCD‐fats were higher than that of MLCD‐fats because of the acylglycerol compositions as well as fat crystals in DAG‐fats. Applying high melting point DAG as a novel base stock has an immense potential value in the production of specialty fats with low saturated fat, high stability, and decent operability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-based proteins are increasingly being utilized as they are sustainable, economical, and can enhance the organoleptic properties of food products. This study investigated the effect of extraction and isolation techniques (alkaline extraction & isoelectric precipitation and salt extraction & micellization) on the functional properties ((solubility, water holding and oil absorption capacity (WHC/OAC), emulsifying activity and stability index (EAI/ESI), foaming capacity and stability (FC/FS), and gelation)) of Moringa oleifera protein isolates. The effect of ionic strength (0.2–1.0 M NaCl) and pH (2–10) on the functional properties were also investigated. Salt extraction & micellization produced an isolate with a high solubility at 0.8 M NaCl and pH 10 (98.1%, 91.8%), EAI at 0.6 M NaCl and pH 6 (56.2 m2/g, 77.0 m2/g), and ESI at 0.8 M NaCl and pH 4 (64.4 min, 243.5 min). Alkaline extraction & isoelectric precipitation resulted in an isolate with a high WHC at 0.6 M NaCl and pH 10 (5.8 g/g, 4.0 g/g), OAC (4.9 g/g), FC at 0.4 M NaCl and pH 2 (203.3%, 163.3%), and gelation at 0.2 M NaCl, 0.4 M NaCl, and pH 8 (20.0%). Both extraction methods can be applied in the valorization of M. oleifera seedcake. Micellized isolate could be used in food emulsions due to better emulsifying properties, while isoelectric isolate can be applied in meats and sauces, owing to better water holding and oil absorption capacity. M. oleifera protein isolates are promising plant-based proteins that can be used in food formulations or to replace animal-derived proteins in food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the glycerolysis process for diacylglycerol (DAG) preparation, free lipases suffer from poor stability and the inability to be reused. To address this, a cost-effective immobilized lipase preparation was developed by cross-linking macroporous resin with poly (ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE) followed by lipase adsorption. The selected immobilization conditions were identified as pH 7.0, 35 °C, cross-linking agent concentration 2.0%, cross-linking time 4 h, lipase amount 5 mg/g of support, and adsorption time 4 h. Enzymatic properties of the immobilized lipase were analyzed, revealing enhanced pH stability, thermal stability, storage stability, and operational stability post-immobilization. The conditions for immobilized enzyme-catalyzed glycerolysis to produce DAG were selected, demonstrating the broad applicability of the immobilized lipase. The immobilized lipase catalyzed glycerolysis reactions using various oils as substrates, with DAG content in the products ranging between 35 and 45%, demonstrating broad applicability. Additionally, the changes during the repeated use of the immobilized lipase were characterized, showing that mechanical damage, lipase leakage, and alterations in the secondary structure of the lipase protein contributed to the decline in catalytic activity over time. These findings provide valuable insights for the industrial application of lipase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) from plant biomass is becoming popular, attributed to the protective encapsulation of bioactive compounds in Pickering emulsion, preventing degradation and stabilizing the emulsion. NFC, as a natural dietary fiber, is a prominent fat replacer, providing a quality enhancement to reduced‐fat products. In this study, NFC Pickering emulsions were prepared at NFC concentrations of 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1% to encapsulate carotenoids. The NFC Pickering emulsions at NFC concentrations of 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, and 1% were incorporated into margarine‐like reduced fat (3%) spreads as the aqueous phase. Characterization of both NFC Pickering emulsion and the incorporated NFC Pickering emulsion, margarine‐like reduced fat spreads, was conducted with mastersizer, rheometer, spectrophotometer, and texture analyzer. The particle size (73.67 ± 0.35 to 94.73 ± 2.21 nm), viscosity (138.36 ± 3.35 to 10545.00 ± 567.10 mPa s), and creaming stability (25% to 100% stable) of the NFC Pickering emulsions were increased significantly when increasing the NFC concentration, whereas the encapsulation efficiency was highest at NFC 0.4% and 0.6%. Although imitating the viscoelastic solid‐like behavior of margarine was difficult, the NFC Pickering emulsion properties were still able to enhance hardness, slip melting point, and color of the reduced fat spreads compared to the full‐fat margarine, especially at 0.6% of NFC. Overall, extensive performances of NFC can be seen in encapsulating carotenoids, especially at NFC concentrations of 0.4% and 0.6%, with the enhancement of Pickering emulsion stability while portraying futuristic possibilities as a fat replacer in margarine optimally at 0.6% of NFC concentration. Practical Application: Nanocellulose extracted from palm dried long fiber was utilized to encapsulate carotenoids and replace fats in margarine‐like reduced fat (3%) spreads. Our study portrayed high encapsulation efficiency and successful fat replacement with promising stability performances. Hence, nanocellulose displayed extensive potential as encapsulating agents and fat replacers while providing quality and sustainability enhancements in reduced‐fat food. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: As a by‐product of the palm oil industry, palm stearin is often overlooked despite having several beneficial properties, such as excellent stability, which is critically essential to meet the demand of the global food trend in producing safer processed food. Specifically, deep frying of food is often associated with the production of toxic compounds that could potentially migrate into the food system when oils are degraded under continuous heating. The incorporation of palm stearin is regarded as a cost‐effective and efficient method to modify the fatty acid composition of oils, enhance the frying qualities and lower the degradation rate. RESULTS: This study blended 5% and 10% palm stearin into palm oil to investigate the deep‐frying performance and impact on food quality. Increasing the palm stearin content improved the frying oil's oxidative and hydrolytic stability, evidenced by reduction of total polar material, free fatty acid and total oxidation value. Addition of palm stearin increased the slip melting point which improved the oil's oxidative stability but no significant increase in oil content of instant noodles was observed. Scanning electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy showed the formation of larger pores in the noodle structure that facilitated oil retention. CONCLUSION: Blending palm stearin into frying oil enhanced the frying stability and minimally affected the oil uptake in instant noodles. This article presents the viability of blending palm stearin into frying oils to develop longer‐lasting frying oils. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm kernel oil (PKO) is a vegetable oil containing active substances beneficial for medicine and health. The applications of PKO can be extended by synthesizing ozonated PKO (OPKO). In this study, the PKO was ozonated at different intervals (0, 1, 3, 7, and 24 h). The physicochemical properties of OPKO were studied, including iodine value (IV), peroxide value (PV), acid value (AV), anisidine value (p-AV), viscosity and fatty acid composition (FAC). Meanwhile, the spectroscopic characteristics, melting and crystallization properties of OPKO were also investigated. Besides, the present study also examined the antimicrobial properties of OPKO against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as fungi using agar disk-diffusion method. The results showed that PV, AV, and viscosity of the OPKO increased in parallel with increasing ozonation time, reaching 963.6 ± 25.0 meq O2/kg fat, 45.30 ± 1.45 mg KOH/g oil, and 196.3 ± 1.6 mPa.s, respectively, after 24 h of ozonation. On the other hand, prolonged ozonation time reduced oleic acid and led to lower IV of 1.6 ± 0.7 g I2/100 g oil. The p-AV exhibited an increasing-decreasing trend, reaching a peak at 3 h ozonation period. Spectroscopic analysis showed that the absorption band at 1712 cm−1, 1400 cm−1, and 1112 cm−1, attributed to C=O, O-H, and -C-O, respectively, were altered with the ozonation time, indicating the change in the chemical composition of PKO. Moreover, the change in the FAC also affected the crystallization and melting profiles of PKO. This work also demonstrated the excellent antimicrobial properties of OPKO with significant inhibition effects against several types of microorganisms tested. Therefore, OPKO can be an essential component with great potential for cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The process of lipid crystallization influences the characteristics of lipid. By changing the chemical composition of the lipid system, the crystallization behavior could be controlled. This review elucidates the internal factors affecting lipid crystallization, including triacylglycerol (TAG) structure, TAG composition, and minor components. The influence of these factors on the TAG crystal polymorphic form, nanostructure, microstructure, and physical properties is discussed. The interplay of these factors collectively influences crystallization across various scales. Variations in fatty acid chain length, double bonds, and branching, along with their arrangement on the glycerol backbone, dictate molecular interactions within and between TAG molecules. High-melting-point TAG dominates crystallization, while liquid oil hinders the process but facilitates polymorphic transitions. Unique molecular interactions arise from specific TAG combinations, yielding molecular compounds with distinctive properties. Nanoscale crystallization is significantly impacted by liquid oil and minor components. The interaction between the TAG and minor components determines the influence of minor components on the crystallization process. In addition, future perspectives on better design and control of lipid crystallization are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions with high-melting diacylglycerol (DAG) crystals incorporated in the oil droplets were fabricated and the compositions were optimized to achieve the best physical stability. The stability against osmotic pressure, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release profiles of both water- and oil-soluble bioactives were investigated. The presence of interfacial crystallized DAG shells increased the emulsion stability by reducing the swelling and shrinkage of emulsions against osmotic pressure and heating treatment. DAG crystals located at the inner water/oil (W1/O) interface and the gelation of the inner phase by gelatin helped reduce the oil droplet size and slow down the salt release rate. The DAG and gelatin-contained double emulsion showed improved encapsulation efficiency of bioactives, especially for the epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) during storage. The double emulsions with DAG had a lower digestion rate but higher bioaccessibility of EGCG and curcumin after in vitro digestion. DAG-stabilized double emulsions with a gelled inner phase thus can be applied as controlled delivery systems for bioactives by forming robust interfacial crystalline shells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crude palm oil (CPO) is highly abundant in carotenoids. Previous findings found that dry fractionation can concentrate carotenoids from CPO but resulted in a significant loss of carotenoids. Therefore, the present study aimed to utilize solvent fractionation, which offers a better separation efficiency, to concentrate carotenoids from CPO with improved recovery. Computational study revealed a high binding affinity of phytonutrient towards unsaturated triacylglycerols (TAGs) species in olein fraction due to similar polarity. This prediction was further verified with evidence showing strong, positive correlation between the iodine value and carotenoids concentrations of fractionated oil. The difference in binding affinity of saturated and unsaturated TAG towards different solvents can be used as a guide for screening and selection of solvent suitable for recovery of phytonutrient during solvent fractionation. Subsequently, a lab‐scale single‐ stage fractionation study disclosed that crystallization temperature of 15°C, oil to acetone ratio of 1:5 (w/v) for 4 h under agitation at 100 rpm produced olein with the highest carotenoid concentration (637 ppm) and recovery (94%). Subsequent double‐stage fractionation successfully concentrated the carotenoids up to 125% with a recovery of >93%. Conclusively, solvent fractionation provides an effective way to concentrate valuable carotenoids from CPO while minimizing the lost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various food formulations widely utilized solid fats to provide specific textural properties and sensory attributes. Partially hydrogenated oil was commonly used as solid fat before being banned by FDA recently because of the existence of trans fats. Oleogels, semi‐solid gel typically prepared from liquid vegetable oil and food‐grade oleogelators, is developed as an alternative for solid fats that is free of trans fat and low in saturated fats. Oleogels are prepared via indirect or direct oleogelation technology by which the liquid oil is entrapped in a three‐dimensional network with the aid of low molecular weight oleogelators (LMOGs) and high molecular weight oleogelators (HMOGs). Oleogels received tremendous attention from food scientists to be used in various food applications, particularly high‐fat products such as comminuted meat, chocolates, ice cream, shortening and margarine and even as a deep‐frying medium. They satisfy not only the current trends of consumers for healthy food products (free of trans fat and low in saturated fat) but also provide viscoelastic solid‐ and gel‐ like properties to structure high fat food products. More importantly, recent studies showed that oleogels tend to be metabolized differently from conventional fats and oils giving them an additional advantage in improving the nutritional value of high‐fat foods. Therefore, this review aims to provide an overview that captures the latest studies on oleogels from their production via direct dispersion and indirect dispersion methods, processing conditions that influence the physical properties, metabolism and health attributes as well as recent application in food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insect-based food or ingredients have received tremendous attention worldwide because of their potential to ensure food and nutrition security, mitigating the reliance on land-dependent agricultural products. Indeed, insect-farming has low environmental impacts with reduced land, water and energy input. More importantly, insects are rich in high quality proteins and fats. They are also excellent sources of minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds. Insect-based lipids are intriguing because they may contain high levels of unsaturated fatty acids particularly linoleic and α-linolenic acids. Besides, the insect-based lipids also show a considerable amount of bioactive components such as tocols, sterols and carotenoids. However, their fatty acid compositions and the nutritional values may vary depending on species, feed composition, developmental stage, geographical locations, and extraction techniques. Therefore, the present article aims to provide a comprehensive review on the fatty acid composition, the minor bioactive constituents and the physicochemical properties of fats and oils derived from insects of different orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera and Diptera). The various parameters affecting the nutritional compositions of the insect-based lipids will also be highlighted. These information will definitely provide a detailed insight on the potential applications of these fats in various food systems based on their unique properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Curcumin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (Cur-SLN) were prepared using medium- and long chain diacylglycerol (MLCD) or glycerol tripalmitate (TP) as lipid matrix and three kinds of surfactants including Tween 20 (T20), quillaja saponin (SQ) and rhamnolipid (Rha). The MLCD-based SLNs had a smaller size and lower surface charge than TP-SLNs with a Cur encapsulation efficiency of 87.54–95.32% and the Rha-based SLNs exhibited a small size but low stability to pH decreases and ionic strength. Thermal analysis and X-ray diffraction results confirmed that the SLNs with different lipid cores showed varying structures, melting and crystallization profiles. The emulsifiers slightly impacted the crystal polymorphism of MLCD-SLNs but largely influenced that of TP-SLNs. Meanwhile, the polymorphism transition was less significant for MLCD-SLNs, which accounted for the better stabilization of particle size and higher encapsulation efficiency of MLCD-SLNs during storage. In vitro studies showed that emulsifier formulation greatly impacted on the Cur bioavailability, whereby T20-SLNs showed much higher digestibility and bioavailability than that of SQ- and Rha-SLNs possibly due to the difference in the interfacial composition. Mathematical modeling analysis of the membrane release further confirmed that Cur was mainly released from the intestinal phase and T20-SLNs showed a faster release rate compared with other formulations. This work contributes to a better understanding of the performance of MLCD in lipophilic compound-loaded SLNs and has important implications for the rational design of lipid nanocarriers and in instructing their application in functional food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oil has extensively been extracted from oil-bearing crops and traded globally as a major food commodity. There is always a huge demand from the fats and oils industries to increase oil yield because of profitability benefits. If extraction is conducted under mild operating conditions to preserve and improve the oil quality, then it would be an added value. Ultrasound that works on the cavitational action helps to fulfil the gap. Ultrasound is gaining tremendous interest as an alternative to replace the current conventional extractions approach because of its multiple benefits. Cavitation generated by ultrasound eases the release of oil from cell matrices, thereby allowing the extraction to be carried out under mild processing conditions. The effect enhances the oil yield whilst preserving the quality of the oil. In ultrasound, green solvents can be used to replace toxic organic solvents. Recent up-to-date approaches utilised a combination of ultrasound with enzyme, microwave and supercritical technology to further enhance the oil extraction. This review highlights a comprehensive work of the impact of ultrasound and ultrasound in combination with other technologies on oil extraction, which emphasises the extraction yield and physicochemical properties of the oil, such as fatty acid composition, oxidative stability with the retention of the lipophilic phytochemicals and iodine, saponification values and colour parameters. Understanding of ultrasonication techniques for oil extraction served to be essential and useful information for the fats and oils scientists from academia and industries to explore the possibility of employing a sustainable and mild approaches for extracting oil from various crops. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Crude palm oil (CPO) is rich with phytonutrients such as carotenoids and tocols which possesses many health benefits. The aim of this research was to develop a methanol‐free process to produce palm phytonutrients via enzymatic hydrolysis. In this work, triacylglycerol was hydrolyzed into free fatty acids (FFAs) using three different types of liquid lipases derived from Aspergillus oryzae (ET 2.0), Aspergillus niger (Habio) and Candida antartica (CALB). RESULTS: ET 2.0 was found to be the best enzyme for hydrolysis. Under the optimum condition, the FFA content achievable was 790 g kg−1 after 24 h of reaction with 1:1 water‐to‐oil mass ratio at 50 °C and stirring speed of 9 × g. Furthermore, with the addition of 2 g kg−1 ascorbic acid, it was found that 98% of carotenoids and 96% of tocols could be retained after hydrolysis. CONCLUSION: This work shows that enzymatic hydrolysis, which is inherently safer, cleaner and sustainable is feasible to replace the conventional methanolysis for the production of palm phytonutrients. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm pressed fibre (PPF) is a lignocellulose biomass generated from palm oil mill that is rich in cellulose. The present work aimed to combine acid hydrolysis followed by high-pressure homogenisation (HPH) to produce nanocrystal cellulose (CNC) with enhanced physicochemical properties from PPF. PPF was alkaline treated, bleached, acid hydrolysed and homogenised under high pressure condition to prepare CNC. The effects of homogenisation pressure (10, 30, 50, 70 MPa) and cycles (1, 3, 5, 7) on the particle size, zeta potential and rheological properties of CNC produced were investigated. HPH was capable of producing CNC with better stability. Results revealed that utilizing 1 cycle of homogenisation at a pressure of 50 MPa resulted in CNC with the smallest dimension, highest aspect ratio, moderate viscosity and exceptionally high zeta potential. Subsequently, 0.15% (CNC 0.15 -PE) and 0.30% (CNC 0.30 -PE) of CNC was used to stabilise oil-in-water emulsions and their stability was evaluated against different pH, temperature and ionic strength. All the CNC-stabilised emulsions demonstrated good thermal stability. CNC 0.30 -PE exhibited larger droplets but higher stability than CNC 0.15 -PE. In short, CNC with gel like structure has a promising potential to serve as a natural Pickering emulsifier to stabilise oil-in-water emulsion in various food applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structured lipids (SLs) refer to a new type of functional lipid obtained by modifying natural triacylglycerol (TAG) through the restructuring of fatty acids, thereby altering the composition, structure, and distribution of fatty acids attached to the glycerol backbones. Due to the unique functional characteristics of SLs (easy to absorb, low in calories, reduced serum TAG, etc.), there is increasing interest in the research and application of SLs. SLs were initially prepared using chemical methods. With the wide application of enzymes in industries and the advantages of enzymatic synthesis (mild reaction conditions, high catalytic efficiency, environmental friendliness, etc.), synthesis of SLs using lipase has aroused great interest. This review summarizes the reaction system of SL production and introduces the enzymatic synthesis and application of some of the latest SLs discussed/developed in recent years, including medium- to long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT), diacylglycerol (DAG), EPA- and DHA-enriched TAG, human milk fat substitutes, and esterified propoxylated glycerol (EPG). Lastly, several new ways of applying SLs (powdered oil, DAG plastic fat, inert gas spray oil, and emulsion) in the future food industry are also highlighted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reducing fat intake from our daily diet serves to be an effective way to combat the rising obesity issue worldwide. Hence, reducing fat content in mayonnaise, a high fat food product, is one of the primary trends in the food industry. To date, research on the use of nanocellulose, a new and emerging form of fat mimetic, in mayonnaise formulation remains limited. This study sets out to formulate reduced fat 5%, 15%, and 30% mayonnaise using varying concentration of nanocellulose synthesized from palm pressed fiber followed by a 20‐day stability study. Nanocellulose was synthesized with particle size of 106.0 ± 18.7 nm and zeta potential of −72.5 ± 2.26 mV. It was used as fat mimetic in mayonnaise. Rheological analysis conducted showed that incorporation of nanocellulose into reduced fat mayonnaise formulation was able to counteract the loss of viscosity in mayonnaise caused by fat content reduction. This finding was further supported by the smaller oil droplets that are closely packed in reduced fat mayonnaise formulation when viewed under light microscope. Nonetheless, significant oil droplet coalescence was found in reduced fat mayonnaise formulations during storage period which could lead to loss of viscosity. Taken together, these findings suggest that CNF was able to act as fat mimetic upon formulation of mayonnaise but the same cannot be said during long term storage of mayonnaise. Practical Application: We successfully isolated nanocellulose from palm biomass (palm pressed fiber) using green approach and used it as a fat replacer for preparation of 5%, 15%, and 30% reduced fat mayonnaise. A computation study revealed a strong binding affinity of the nanocellulose on the lipase active site essential to inhibit the digestion of fats and oils. Therefore, nanocellulose demonstrated a huge potential to be used as not only as fat replacer but also rheological modifier for the development of reduced fat or vegan foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) is a type of nanocellulose with multiple functionalities. Typically, NFC is produced via mechanical high-pressure homogenization process. However, this process is energy intensive and the fibrous nature of NFC often causes instrument blockage. The present study aims to utilize endoglucanase enzyme as an environmentally-friendly approach to pretreat fiber structure prior to undergoing mechanical defibrillation for the production of NFC from corn cob. Alkaline-and bleached-pretreated corn cob was reacted with endoglucanase Fibercare R from 0 to 2.5% before passing through the high-pressure homogenizer. It was found that the incorporation of 0.02% endoglucanase was sufficient to soften the corn cob cellulose and further prevented the blockage of the homogenizer. Subsequently, the 0.02% endoglucanase-treated corn cob was passed through different homogenization cycles (0–10 cycles) for NFC production. The water retention, Zeta potential, and shear viscosity of the NFC increased with higher homogenization cycle during the NFC production and the resulting NFC had a gel-like consistency. Next, emulsifying-stabilizing properties of the NFC produced from cycle 0 to cycle 10 as well as their amount from 0 to 1% were also assessed. The increase in homogenization cycle and amount of NFC promoted emulsion stability can be observed from the low creaming index, which is mainly attributed to the high shear viscosity and G'G" crossover of the emulsion. Overall, the NFC derived from corn cob via enzymatic coupled with high-pressure homogenization process has the potential to be used as gel-like stabilizer in oil-in-water food emulsion system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enterococcus sp. has been used as starters in food fermentation due to their probiotic and antimicrobial properties in food biopreservation. The antimicrobial properties were mainly contributed by the bacteriocin called enterocin. Hence, the availability of a cost-effective pilot-scale cultivation conditions is a necessity for the production of probiotic bacteria. This study aims to investigate optimization of medium composition using sugarcane molasses as a carbon source using response surface methodology and the potential use of fed-batch cultivation for improvement of the cell viability of Enterococcus faecium CW3801 for the use as a probiotic starter culture. Two feeding strategies (ramp and constant) were applied in fed-batch cultivation for enhancement of the production of E. faecium in a 2-L stirred tank bioreactor using the optimized medium and scaled up to a 15-L bioreactor. Optimized fermentation medium which comprised of 10% (v/v) of molasses and 10 g/L of yeast extract at pH 7 yielded maximum cell viability of 29.4 × 1011 CFU/mL with 3900 AU/mL of bacteriocin-like inhibitory substances (BLIS) activity. In the fed-batch, the cell viability (8.4 × 1013) and dry cell weight (6.34 g/L) reached the highest in optimized medium when the ramp (stepwise) feeding was applied. In scaling up to 15-L bioreactor, the growth of E. faecium was achieved at 2.3 × 1013 CFU/mL with the dry cell weight of 5.28 g/L under the same condition. The BLIS in 15-L bioreactor was 6% higher than the 2-L bioreactor. This study demonstrated that molasses and yeast extract are good feedstock for the growth of E. faecium. The E. faecium, a non-vancomycin resistant enterococcus (VRE) was successfully produced by a fed-batch cultivation approach and scaled up to a 15-L bioreactor using a ramp feeding strategy. Results from this study revealed that the fed-batch cultivation using molasses-based medium has industrial potential for the production of probiotics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a simple pH-colorimetric film was developed to detect the spoilage of pasteurized milk. The biosensor was fabricated by incorporating the pH-sensitive anthocyanins (AC) extracted from blue pea (Clitoria ternatea L.) flower into a starch-based edible film. The color responses of both AC aqueous extracts and edible films incorporated with different AC concentrations towards different pH buffers (pH 2–11) were measured using Ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectrophotometer and colorimeter, respectively. Based on the results, there were significant differences (p < 0.05) for both total color changes (∆E) and L*a*b color system of the pH-sensitive edible film in different pH buffers. It indicated that the AC incorporated edible films were able to exhibit color changes over a wide range of pH. The potential application of the pH-sensitive film in spoilage detection was then carried out. Color changes of the film in commercial pasteurized milk were measured at predetermined intervals (24, 48, and 72 h) under storage conditions of 25 °C. Meanwhile, milk samples were collected for the microbiological test [total plate count (TPC)]. Results showed that the pH-sensitive films were able to detect pH changes of pasteurized milk which was associated with milk spoilage with visually observable color changes from deep blue to a light blue and showed a significant ∆E (p < 0.05) of 19.95 ± 0.009. The ∆E of the films in spoilage detection has a significant correlation with the pH changes of milk (R = − 0.9932) and TPC with a desirable coefficient (R = 0.9918). Therefore, the pH-sensitive edible film can provide a highly sensitive and non-destructive way of monitoring the food quality or spoilage without creating safety issues in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Palm pressed fibre (PPF) is a cellulose‐rich biomass residue produced during palm oil extraction. Its high cellulose content allows the isolation of cellulose nanocrystal (CNC). CNC has attracted scientific interest due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility and low cost. The present study isolated CNC from PPF using a cation exchange resin, which is an environmentally friendly and less harsh hydrolysis method than conventional mineral acid hydrolysis. Isolated CNC was used to stabilise an oil‐in‐water emulsion and the emulsion stability was evaluated in terms of droplet size, morphology and physical stability. RESULTS: PPF was subjected to alkali and bleach treatment prior to hydrolysis, which successfully removed 54% and 75% of non‐cellulosic components (hemicellulose and lignin, respectively). Hydrolysis conditions of 5 h, 15:1 (w/w) resin‐to‐pulp ratio and 50 °C produced CNC particles of 50–100 nm in length. CNC had a crystallinity index of 42% and appeared rod‐like morphologically. CNC‐stabilised emulsion had better stability when used in combination with soy lecithin (SL), a well‐established, commonly used food stabiliser. Emulsion stabilised by the binary mixture of CNC and SL had droplet size, morphology and physical stability comparable to those of emulsion stabilised using SL. CONCLUSIONS: CNC was successfully isolated from PPF through a cation exchange resin. This offers an alternative usage for the underutilised PPF to be converted into value‐added products. Isolated CNC was also found to have promising potential in the stabilisation of Pickering emulsions. These results provide useful information indicating CNC as a natural and sustainable stabiliser for food, cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical applications. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) is a rich source of vitamin E. As compared to other vegetable oil, PFAD has higher tocotrienol (70–80%) over tocopherol content, which makes it a valuable source for vitamin E extraction. Current vitamin E extraction methods are not sustainable due to the intensive usage of chemical and high operational cost. Hence, the present study investigated for the first time using dry fractionation process as a green and economical pretreatment method for separating solid fraction (stearin) and liquid fraction (olein) in order to concentrate vitamin E from PFAD in olein fraction. We examined the dry fractionation conditions: crystallization ending temperature (36–44 °C), cooling rate (0.3 and 1.5°C min−1), stirring speed (20–125 rpm), and holding time (0–60 min) on the composition of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids as well as vitamin E content in liquid fraction (olein) and solid fraction (stearin) using gas chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography, respectively. In most of these conditions, vitamin E was ultimately higher in olein fraction as compared to stearin fraction, which is correlated with the high degree of unsaturation. Under a cooling rate of 0.3°C min−1, 90 rpm stirring speed, and ending crystallization of 38 °C, the highest vitamin E rich olein fraction was attained with 1479 ± 10.51 ppm in 50 g olein fraction as compared to 1366 ± 7.94 ppm in 500 g of unfractionated PFAD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diacylglycerol (DAG) is a world leading anti-obesity functional cooking oil synthesized via structural modification of conventional fats and oils. DAG exits in three stereoisomers namely sn-1,2-DAG, sn-1,3-DAG, and sn-2,3-DAG. DAG particularly sn-1,3-DAG demonstrated to have the potential in suppressing body fat accumulation and lowering postprandial serum triacylglycerol, cholesterol and glucose level. DAG also showed to improve bone health. This is attributed to DAG structure itself that caused it to absorb and digest via different metabolic pathway than conventional fats and oils. With its purported health benefits, many studies attempt to enzymatically or chemically synthesis DAG through various routes. DAG has also received wide attention as low calorie fat substitute and has been incorporated into various food matrixes. Despite being claimed as healthy cooking oil the safety of DAG still remained uncertain. DAG was banned from sale as it was found to contain probable carcinogen glycidol fatty acid esters. The article aims to provide a comprehensive and latest review of DAG emphasizing on its structure and properties, safety and regulation, process developments, metabolism and beneficial health attributes as well as its applications in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of different processing methods namely enzymatic method using crude protease extract (CPE) from overripe pineapple, microwave‐assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasound‐assisted extraction (UAE) methods on the recovery yield of virgin coconut oil (VCO) is evaluated. The physicochemical properties of VCOs namely color, iodine value (IV), refractive index, saponification value, moisture content, free fatty acid, p‐anisidine value, lipid peroxidation, fatty acid composition, triacylglycerol (TAG) composition, melting and crystallization profile are compared. The total phenolic compounds and scavenging activity of the extracted VCOs are also examined. Results reveal that enzymatic approach exhibits the highest VCO yield (77.7% ± 0.38) at 50 °C for 2 h, followed by MAE (58.6%±0.07), control without enzyme (24.1%±0.19) and UAE (24.1%±0.12). The physicochemical properties of the VCOs extracted are found to conform to APCC standards established except IV. The antioxidant activity of VCO extracted with CPE shows no significant difference with MAE and UAE methods (p > 0.05). Lauric acid appears to be the most abundant fatty acid detected in all VCO samples. Similar exotherms and endotherms are observed in both melting and crystallization profiles with two distinct peaks exhibited. The TAG compositions of the extracted VCOs are mainly LaLaLa, LaLaM, CLaLa, CCLa, and LaMM (C = Capric acid; La = Lauric acid; M = Myristic acid). Practical Applications: The results obtained from this study indicate that VCO extraction using CPE from overripe pineapple is feasible. The enzymatic extraction protocol presented here would be useful for VCO production at industrial scale with a promising oil yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diacylglycerol (DAG) and monoacylglycerol (MAG) are two natural occurring minor components found in most edible fats and oils. These compounds have gained increasing market demand owing to their unique physicochemical properties. Enzymatic glycerolysis in solvent-free system might be a promising approach in producing DAG and MAG-enriched oil. Understanding on glycerolysis mechanism is therefore of great importance for process simulation and optimization. In this study, a commercial immobilized lipase (Lipozyme TL IM) was used to catalyze the glycerolysis reaction. The kinetics of enzymatic glycerolysis reaction between triacylglycerol (TAG) and glycerol (G) were modeled using rate equation with unsteady-state assumption. Ternary complex, ping-pong bi-bi and complex ping-pong bi-bi models were proposed and compared in this study. The reaction rate constants were determined using non-linear regression and sum of square errors (SSE) were minimized. Present work revealed satisfactory agreement between experimental data and the result generated by complex ping-pong bi-bi model as compared to other models. The proposed kinetic model would facilitate understanding on enzymatic glycerolysis for DAG and MAG production and design optimization of a pilot-scale reactor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-enzymatic browning has been a wide and interesting research area in the food industry, ranging from the complexity of the reaction to its applications in the food industry as well as its ever-debatable health effects. This review provides a new perspective to the Maillard reaction apart from its ubiquitous function in enhancing food flavour, taste and appearance. It focuses on the recent application of Maillard reaction products as an inexpensive and excellent source of emulsifiers as well as superior encapsulating matrices for the entrapment of bioactive compounds. Additionally, it will also discuss the latest approaches employed to perform the Maillard reaction as well as several important reaction parameters that need to be taken into consideration when conducting the Maillard reaction. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to optimize the process variables namely packed bed height (cm) and flow rates (ml/min) on diacylglycerol (DAG) production via partial hydrolysis of palm oil using immobilized Rhizomucor miehei lipase in packed bed reactor (PBR). Quadratic models were successfully developed for both DAG(y) and unhydrolyzed triacylglycerol ((un)TAG) with determination coefficient ( R2) of 0.9931 and 0.9986, respectively coupled with insignificant lack of fit ( p > 0.05). Optimal conditions for DAG synthesis were evaluated to be 10 cm packed bed height and 3.8 ml/min flow rate. Immobilized enzyme can be reused up to 10 times without significant changes in enzymatic activity. The partial hydrolysis under studied was found to be mass transfer-controlled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of replacement of soybean oil (SBO) with 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20% palm kernel based-diacylglycerol (PKDG) which were referred to as SD1000, SD9505, SD9010, SD8515, and SD8020 formulations, respectively, on the rheological properties, textural properties, and storage stability of mayonnaise were evaluated in this study. Emulsion stability results demonstrated no significant differences (P > 0.05) among all formulations except SD8020 which exhibited diminished emulsion stability. In terms of textural properties, both SD9010 and SD8020 showed closer textural characteristics compared with control. Microstructure evaluation of all mayonnaise formulations revealed significant increases in oil droplet diameter in tandem with increasing PKDG concentration. For rheological properties, all mayonnaise formulated displayed similar gel-like behavior with greater storage modulus (G') than loss modulus (G') and loss tangent (tan δ) less than 0.3. Results indicated that up to 10% PKDG was suitable to be incorporated in healthy mayonnaise formulation. Both SD9505 and SD9010 were subsequently evaluated for their stability throughout a 2-month storage period. All mayonnaise displayed satisfying stability during storage with gradual increment in peroxide value, free fatty acid level, and G'G' crossover value except control. Additionally, an insignificant change in viscoelastic properties (P > 0.05) was observed after storage for all formulations examined. Practical applications: This present work has three main practical applications: (i) enable the incorporation of PKDG as a functional ingredient into a mayonnaise system; (ii) provide knowledge and understanding of the physicochemical, rheological, and textural properties of PKDG-enriched mayonnaise; and (iii) give insight into the storage stability of PKDG-incorporated mayonnaise throughout the 2-month storage period. The purpose of this study was to produce mayonnaise using PKDG as a substitute for conventional soybean oil (SBO) in order to improve the nutritional properties of mayonnaise. Physicochemical and textural properties of PKDG-enriched mayonnaise were evaluated and compared with conventional SBO without substitution. Four PKDG-enriched mayonnaises were developed from both PKDG and SBO which were SD9505 ( XSBO = 0.95, XPKDG = 0.05), SD9010 ( XSBO = 0.90, XPKDG = 0.10), SD8515 ( XSBO = 0.85, XPKDG = 0.15), and SD8020 ( XSBO = 0.80, XPKDG = 0.20). Optimal formulations of PKDG-enriched mayonnaises were further assessed for their storage stability at room temperature (20°C) for a period of 2 months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The oxidative and thermal stability of low diglycerides palm oil produced via silica treatment (sPO) and enzymatic treatment (ePO) compared with standard quality palm oil (SQ) and premium quality palm oil (PQ) was investigated. Both of the oils displayed better oxidative stability compared with SQ as well as significantly higher (P < 0.05) thermal resistance and oxidative strength than SQ and PQ due to lower amounts of partial glycerides. Although the initial induction periods (IPs) of sPO and ePO were significantly lower compared with SQ and PQ, both the oils showed slower drops in their IP values. The darkening effect after frying was significantly (P < 0.05) slower in sPO compared with SQ, PQ, and ePO. Besides, there is no difference p > 0.05 in the rate of FFA formation between sPO and PQ. The anisidine value and peroxide values were lowest in sPO, followed by ePO, PQ, and SQ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maillard reaction products (MRPs) are believed to possess antioxidant property besides producing emulsion which is stable and smaller in size. In our work, utilization of MRP as encapsulating agent for structured lipid palm-based medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) was investigated. The MRP prepared from heated aqueous mixture of sodium caseinate (SC), soy protein (SP) and maltodextrin (M) was emulsified with MLCT prior spray drying. The effect of temperature (20, 40, 60, 80, 100 °C), incubation time (2, 6, 8 h), mixture of SC: SP: M (1:0:1, 2:1:3, 1:1:2, 1:2:3, 0:1:1) and carbohydrate + protein:water ratio (1:5 and 1:8) on glycation was investigated. Degree of glycation (Dg) was determined via amount of block amino acid and L*a*b* value. As expected, increasing heat treatment (20, 40, 60, 80, 100 °C) and incubation time (2, 6 and 8 h) significantly ( P < 0.05) increase the Dg. Dg was also higher ( P < 0.05) at high water to solid content. Subsequently, the influence of Dg on physical properties of emulsion and spray-dried powder was also evaluated. It was found that glycation has the ability to reduce the emulsion size besides lowering moisture and surface oil content and creating larger microparticle size of the spray-dried powder. Nonetheless, whitening ability and solubility of the powder are slightly reduced especially when 100 °C MRP was used for encapsulation. SEM showed that glycation resulted in particle with smoother surface. MRP can be utilized as natural emulsifier besides improving certain functional properties of spray-dried powder oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enzymatic production of diacylglycerol (DAG)-enriched oil has been investigated extensively due to its health benefits with total annual sales of approximately USD 200 million in Japan since its introduction in the late 1990s till 2009. Enzymatic catalysis had been proven to exhibit improved results with respect to yield, purity, reaction time, and stability in comparison with chemical catalysis. The cost of the enzymes, however, is the main hurdle to the widespread use of enzyme for commercial DAG production. This paper attempts to review and summarize various lipase-mediated technological methods for DAG production. Critical aspects such as process considerations on DAG synthesis, mass transfer limitations as well as kinetic mechanism models developed for each enzymatic approach in DAG synthesis are also presented and discussed. In addition, possible reactor configurations were evaluated, if lipase-assisted DAG production is to be technically and economically feasible at an industrial scale. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structured lipid such as medium-and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) is claimed to be able to suppress body fat accumulation and be used to manage obesity. Response surface methodology (RSM) with four factors and three levels (+1,0,−1) faced centered composite design (FCCD) was employed for optimization of the enzymatic interesterification conditions of palm-based MLCT (P-MLCT) production. The effect of the four variables namely: substrate ratio palm kernel oil: palm oil, PKO:PO (40:60-100:0 w/w), temperature (50-70 °C), reaction time (0.5-7.5 h) and enzyme load (5-15 % w/w) on the P-MLCT yield (%) and by products (%) produced were investigated. The responses were determined via acylglycerol composition obtained from high performance liquid chromatography. Well-fitted models were successfully established for both responses: P-MLCT yield ( R = 0.9979) and by-products ( R = 0.9892). The P-MLCT yield was significantly ( P < 0.05) affected by substrate ratio, reaction time and reaction temperature but not enzyme load ( P > 0.05). Substrate ratio PKO: PO (100:0 w/w) gave the highest yield of P-MLCT (61 %). Nonetheless, substrate ratio of PKO: PO (90:10w/w) was chosen to improve the fatty acid composition of the P-MLCT. The optimized conditions for substrate ratio PKO: PO (90:10 w/w) was 7.26 h, 50 °C and 5 % (w/w) Lipozyme TLIM lipase, which managed to give 60 % yields of P-MLCT. Up scaled results in stirred tank batch reactor gave similar yields as lab scale. A 20 % increase in P-MLCT yield was obtained via RSM. The effect of enzymatic interesterification on the physicochemical properties of PKO:PO (90:10 w/w) were also studied. Thermoprofile showed that the P-MLCT oil melted below body temperature of 37 °C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the health effect of two types of diacylglycerol (DG) produced from (i) palm kernel (PK) oil of medium-chain saturated fatty acids and (ii) soy-canola oil (SC) blend of long-chain unsaturated fatty acids in C57BL/6N mice. As compared to diet containing 30% PK triacylglycerol (TG), 16 wk feeding trial on C57BL/6N mice with a diet consisting of 30% PKDG and 30% SCDG significantly ( p<0.05) reduced the fat accumulation in epididymal and retroperitoneal regions. Serum glucose, cholesterol, leptin and insulin levels were significantly ( p<0.05) suppressed in PKDG- and SCDG-fed mice. In terms of gene expression, PKDG diet induced expression of acyl-CoA synthase long chain (ACSL) and acyl-CoA synthase medium chain mRNA in the small intestine of the mice while SCDG fed mice upregulated ACSL in liver and small intestine. This suggests that the difference in fatty acid composition of DG may potentially induce β-oxidation in different organs in mice. Besides, expression of apolipoprotein B mRNA were reduced in mice fed with PKDG and SCDG, indicating the ability of PKDG and SCDG to reduce LDL levels. In conclusion, structural differences between DG and TG markedly influenced the metabolism of lipids in the body while fatty acid composition has only showed a minor effect. Practical applications: Medium chain type of DG oil, if proven to have similar effects to long chain type DG in this study, can be incorporated into food for health purposes and can replace conventional cooking oil as healthy functional cooking oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Medium- and long-chain triacylglycerol (MLCT) is a modified lipid containing medium- chain (C6-C12) and long-chain fatty acids (C14-C24) in the same triacylglycerol (TAG) molecule. It can be produced either through enzymatic (with 1,3 specific or nonspecific enzyme) or chemical methods. The specialty of this structured lipid is that it is metabolized differently compared to conventional fats and oils, which can lead to a reduction of fat accumulation in the body. Therefore, it can be used for obesity management. It also contains nutritional properties that can be used to treat metabolic problems. This review will discuss on the health benefits of MLCT, its production methods especially via enzymatic processes and its applications in food industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]