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In 2020, a single-response-based, valence × arousal circumplex-inspired emotion questionnaire (CEQ) was developed. Using a between-participants design, previous studies have found that a multiple response (MR) condition better discriminated test samples (e.g., written food names) based on their evoked emotions than a single response (SR) condition. This research, comprising Studies 1 and 2, aimed to determine the effect of response conditions (i.e., SR vs. MR) on emotional responses to food image samples, using a within-participants design. In Study 1, 105 Korean participants were asked to select a pair of emotion terms (i.e., SR condition) or select all pairs representing their evoked emotions (i.e., MR condition) from a list of 12 pairs of emotion terms of the CEQ, in response to the 14 food images. Both SR and MR conditions were tested within a remote (online) session. To minimize both a potential carry-over effect of the "within-participants design" and an influence of environmental factors in the remote testing, Study 2 asked 64 U.S. participants to do so over two separated sessions on two different days in a controlled laboratory setting. In both Studies 1 and 2, participants selected the CEQ's emotion-term pairs in the MR condition more frequently than in the SR condition, leading to the MR condition's higher capacity to discriminate test samples. While the configurations of the correspondence analysis biplots drawn in the SR and MR conditions were similar, those in the MR condition were more likely to be similar to the configurations of the principal component analysis biplots drawn from the ratings of valence and arousal for food image samples. In conclusion, this study provides robust empirical evidence that the MR condition can perform better in capturing sample differences in food-evoked emotions, while the SR condition is also effective in characterizing emotional profiles of test samples. Our findings will provide practical insights to sensory professionals, enabling them to effectively leverage the CEQ or its variants when measuring food-evoked emotions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine whether and how three demographic factors—age group, gender, and consumption frequency—affect texture perception and liking of two staple foods—cooked rice and wheat bread. In total, 346 adults evaluated three cooked rice and four wheat bread samples in terms of three (hardness, stickiness, and chewiness) and four textural attributes (hardness, moistness, chewiness, and softness), respectively, on both 9-point intensity and 5-point Just-About-Right (JAR) scales. Liking of test samples was also rated on 9-point hedonic scales. Age group and gender differed in mean ratings, standard deviations, and JAR responses regarding textural attribute intensity and overall liking of test samples, while the effect of consumption frequency was minimal in this regard. Significant contributors of textural attributes to overall liking of cooked rice and wheat bread differed with age group, gender, and consumption frequency. Effects of age group, gender, and consumption frequency on texture perception and overall liking also varied with test samples. This study provides agricultural and food systems professionals with systematic evidence of how textural attribute perception and liking of foods can change based on demographics and test samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Boneless, skinless chicken breasts comprise almost 30% of total poultry sales and poultry remains US consumers' protein of choice. This research sought to determine whether consumers of chicken would pay a premium for a smoked chicken breast that was healthier and produced with less of a negative impact on the environment. Two balanced consumer panel groups were presented with information on the two value prospects of smoked chicken prepared with liquid smoke. The order of presentation of the health claims and the environmentally friendly claims were reversed to measure the impact of the order of presentation on consumers' willingness to pay. An Nth type auction showed that health claims elicited a greater premium; the highest average premium was approximately $7 including the baseline price following the health claims for the liquid smoked chicken. The order of presentation of the information did not affect the results. Practical applications: Consumers are willing to pay more for chicken that is deemed healthier and prepared with environmentally friendly ingredients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensory professionals are looking for alternative ways to conduct laboratory sensory testing, especially central location testing (CLT), during the COVID-19 pandemic. One way could be conducting CLTs at home (i.e., in-home testing). It is questionable whether food samples under in-home testing should be presented in uniform utensils, as it does so under laboratory sensory testing. This study aimed to determine whether utensil conditions could affect consumer perception and acceptance of food samples evaluated under in-home testing. Sixty-eight participants (40 females and 28 males) prepared chicken-flavored ramen noodle samples and evaluated them for attribute perception and acceptance, under two utensil conditions, using either their utensils ("Personal") or uniform utensils provided ("Uniform"). Participants also rated their liking of forks/spoons, bowls, and eating environments, respectively, and attentiveness to sensory evaluation under each utensil condition. Results of the in-home testing showed that participants liked ramen noodle samples and their flavors under the "Personal" condition significantly more than under the "Uniform" condition. Ramen noodle samples evaluated under the "Uniform" condition were significantly higher in terms of saltiness than those evaluated under the "Personal" condition. Participants liked forks/spoons, bowls, and eating environments used under the "Personal" condition significantly more than those used under the "Uniform" condition. While overall likings of ramen noodle samples, evaluated under the "Personal" condition, significantly increased with an increase in hedonic ratings of forks/spoons or bowls, such significant correlations were not observed under the "Uniform" condition. In other words, providing uniform utensils (forks, spoons, and bowls) to participants in the in-home testing can reduce the influences of utensils on consumer likings of ramen noodle samples evaluated at home. In conclusion, this study suggests that sensory professionals should consider providing uniform utensils when they want to focus solely on consumer perception and acceptance of food samples by minimizing influences of environmental contexts, especially utensils, in the "in-home" testing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies have indicated analytic–holistic cognitive style differences of consumers can significantly impact perceptions, opinions, and behaviors toward foods. Interestingly, these studies have also offered evidence that the sole measurement tool to assess analytic–holistic tendencies, the analysis–holism scale (AHS), may not accurately apply to food‐experience‐related research scenarios. Due to these notions, Studies 1 and 2 employed the use of 465 and 487 participants, respectively, to develop, refine, and finalize a food‐related AHS (F‐AHS) using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and prior research on analytic–holistic differences and scale development. Study 3 was conducted to validate the newly developed F‐AHS, based on the results of Studies 1 and 2, by replicating the procedures and analyses from prior research while using the F‐AHS instead of the AHS to segment participants (N = 130). The results of Study 3 provided consistent evidence that the F‐AHS better separated participants into analytic and holistic groups than the AHS through larger analytic–holistic differences that more closely aligned with prior analytic–holistic research. Our findings showed that the F‐AHS is capable of separating consumers into analytic and holistic cognitive style groups and is better suited to sensory and consumer‐related applications than the AHS. Practical Application: Our findings provide researchers with an optimized tool to separate consumers into analytic and holistic groups in food‐experience‐related situations. The food‐related analysis–holism scale can then be used in both academia and industry to separate consumers based on cognitive style to better understand how and why consumers show variations in perception, acceptance, and behavior in food‐related experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new methodology was developed to print pizza dough with a gluten free flour blend or commercial gluten whole wheat flour using extrusion-based 3-D printing technology. Their physical properties were compared to commercially available pizza dough and crust. The optimized nozzle size, print speed, ingredient flow speed, and line thickness for the 3-D printing of pizza dough were: 0.04 cm, 800 cm/minutes, 1.8, and 0.34 cm, respectively. The printed gluten-free pizza dough required 120 min of fermentation to obtain a comparable color and textural profile (P < 0.05) to that of the gluten whole wheat flour dough fermented for 60 min. The 3-D printed gluten free, whole-wheat pizza and commercially available wheat flour dough and standard crusts demonstrated identical Δ E ab ∗ values of 0.14 and 0.13, respectively with brownness index (BI) values of 1.47 and 1.62, respectively. Textural profile analysis (TPA) of 3-D printed gluten free and whole wheat pizza dough, crust and the commercial standard wheat flour pizza dough and crust demonstrated significant (P < 0.05) correlations in terms of hardness, fracturability, adhesiveness, springiness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and resilience. An optimized method was developed to prepare gluten-free pizza dough and crust with similar functional properties to that of gluten whole wheat flour dough and crust. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensory perception is understood to be a complex area of research that requires investigations from a variety of different perspectives. Although researchers have tried to better understand consumers' perception of food, one area that has been minimally explored is how psychological cognitive theories can help them explain consumer perceptions, behaviors, and decisions in food-related experiences. The concept of cognitive styles has existed for nearly a century, with the majority of cognitive style theories existing along a continuum with two bookends. Some of the more common theories such as individualist-collectivist, left-brain-right-brain, and convergent-divergent theories each offered their own unique insight into better understanding consumer behavior. However, these theories often focused only on niche applications or on specific aspects of cognition. More recently, the analytic-holistic cognitive style theory was developed to encompass many of these prior theoretical components and apply them to more general cognitive tendencies of individuals. Through applying the analytic-holistic theory and focusing on modern cultural psychology work, this review may allow researchers to be able to answer one of the paramount questions of sensory and consumer sciences: how and why do consumers perceive and respond to food stimuli the way that they do? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atypical eating behaviors such as food selectivity, limited intake, and specific mealtime requirements are common among individuals on the autism spectrum. This study aimed at achieving a better understanding of how atypical eating behaviors might be associated with specific sensory functions and consumption environments, through firsthand accounts of autistic individuals. A total of 23 autistic adults participated in one‐on‐one interviews related to sensory experiences in general, sensory experiences during eating or drinking, and eating behavior and food preference. While the results revealed that reactivities to sensory inputs vary among autistic individuals, certain patterns were recognized; for example, most participants mentioned high sensitivity to sound cues both in general and in eating‐related experiences. Sensory cues reflecting qualities of sourness, bitterness, or spiciness were also considered to be highly intense, leading to dislike of food or beverage items with such cues. Atypical sensitivities in each modality were found to affect food choice and preference in autistic individuals. In conclusion, this study provides empirical evidence of atypical sensory perception and eating behavior among autistic adults. Practical Applications: Autism has become increasingly prevalent around the world, with 1 in 54 children so diagnosed in the United States. Feeding issues related to this disorder that might affect nutritional adequacy are among the major concerns of parents with autistic children. Parents also report stress and disruption of daily family activities related to such feeding issues, leading to conflicts, disrupted routines, and degraded social life of family members. Moreover, as the children grow up their eating behavior can hinder both their social life and their degree of independence. Identifying key factors related to sensory sensitivities and their influences on food choice and preference would be a first step in understanding how food‐related experiences can be perceived by autistic individuals. The results of this study will be helpful for autistic people who want to relieve their feeding issues and to know that their food‐related experiences may be shared by others on the spectrum. In addition, the results can inform autistic individuals' family members, educators, product developers, and sensory professionals, who want to develop strategies to improve the eating experiences of autistic people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there is a growing body of attention to the diversity of cognitive styles among individuals, that has yet to be directly applied to sensory and consumer sciences. This study was aimed at identifying how divergent analytic and holistic cognitive styles can affect individuals' food‐related experiences. Participants were classified into either analytic or holistic cognitive style groups based on their scores on the Analysis‐Holism Scale. Focus group interviews were conducted to identify group differences with respect to three aspects of food‐related experiences: (a) shopping for, (b) preparing, and (c) consuming food. The results revealed that analytic consumers focused more on individual ingredients, separate meal portions, and singular important food attributes, while holistic consumers focused more on overall impressions, entire meal portions, and multiple food attributes as being important. In conclusion, this study sheds lights on how cognitive styles can modulate consumers' food‐related experiences in everyday life. Practical applications: Prior analytic–holistic research has highlighted how these two consumer groups can exhibit different processing and interpretations of identical situations. By utilizing psychology theory in the applied setting of sensory evaluation, it has been detailed how analytic and holistic groups that co‐exist in a single population can provide significantly different results in response to food samples in everyday life. Analytic–holistic cognitive styles should therefore be taken into consideration when conducting consumer‐oriented sensory evaluation and product development to achieve better understanding of and predict consumer response and behavior toward food products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Evidence accumulates to support the interaction among gustatory, olfactory and trigeminal sensations. While olfactory dysfunction is associated with impaired taste or intranasal trigeminal perception, less is known about the perception of oral irritative intensity among patients with olfactory or gustatory dysfunctions. Method: 148 patients with olfactory and/or gustatory dysfunctions received oral administration of chili powder samples with varied irritation levels, and rated the oral irritation intensity on an 11‐point scale. Gustatory sensitivity was assessed using the 'Taste Strips' test among a subset of the patients (N = 25). Other variables including the aetiology of disease and a frequency of spicy food consumption were also recorded for exploratory analyses. Results: Participants with anosmia rated oral irritations of chili powder significantly less than participants with normosmia. In the subsample, a positive correlation was observed between the individual scores of the 'Taste Strips' test and ratings of oral irritation intensity at the highest level of chili powder test. There were no effects of age, aetiology, subjective ratings of sensitivity to spicy food or frequency of spicy food consumption with respect to oral irritation intensity of chili powder samples. Conclusion: The current results showed reduced oral irritation intensity among patients with severe olfactory loss. Impaired oral irritative perception among these participants may be related to disturbed central nervous interactions between the various sensory systems involved in flavour perception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to compare acceptances between consumers in the United States (n = 101) and Korea (n = 105) with respect to black rice samples varying in (a) cultivar, aromatic (cv. Heukhayngchal) versus non‐aromatic (cv. Sinnongheukchal), and (b) degree of milling (milled vs. un‐milled). Consumer acceptances of cooked black‐rice samples were also compared with those of cooked white (i.e., non‐colored) rice (cv. Dongjinchal). U.S. consumers were found to like cooked white rice more than black rice. Interestingly, U.S. consumers liked cooked milled black‐rice samples, regardless of their cultivars, while Korean consumers liked cooked un‐milled non‐aromatic black rice and cooked milled white rice. Penalty analysis and standard stepwise multivariate regression analysis revealed that textural and flavor attributes influenced the overall liking of cooked black‐rice samples, although their impacts were different between the two cultural backgrounds. In conclusion, this study shows that consumer acceptance of cooked black‐rice samples differs as a function of cultivar, milling degree, and consumer's cultural background. Practical applications: Black rice is becoming more popular around the world because of its unique flavor and high nutrient content. This study provides better understanding about the impact of cultivar, milling degree, and consumer's cultural background on acceptability of cooked black rice for Korean and U.S. markets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gluten‐free products from rice are gaining popularity because of its hypoallergenic characteristic. The absence of gluten results in inferior bread qualities such as hard texture, reduced volume, and shorter shelf‐life. Hydrolytic enzymes are activated during germination to stimulate plant growth, and germinated brown rice (GBR) has been shown to improve gluten‐free bread properties. However, the changes in hydrolytic enzyme activities under different germination conditions and their relationship with the properties of germinated rice flour and bread have not been reported. Therefore, the objectives of this work were to investigate the activities of amylases and protease in GBR under aerobic and anaerobic germination for 2 and 4 days and their impacts on starch hydrolysis, flour properties, and bread qualities. Greater enzyme activities were observed in GBR germinated under aerobic condition and a longer time, and correlated with increased sugar content and foaming capacity. Breads were prepared from GBR along with brown rice (control). GBR breads showed a greater specific volume (4% to 10%), a reduced hardness (34% to 90%), and a lower starch retrogradation (66% to 90%) compared with the control. Bread prepared from 4‐day aerobic GBR had the largest reduction in starch molecular size and displayed the lowest hardness and starch retrogradation. After stored for 5 days, GBR breads exhibited no change in specific volume and less hardness and retrogradation than the control bread. In conclusion, greater activities of protease and amylases in GBR significantly increased foaming capacity and reduced starch molecule size, respectively, which were responsible for the improved GBR bread qualities. Practical Application: Rice flour is widely used as the main ingredient in gluten‐free breads, which however tend to have poor texture and reduced shelf‐life due to the absence of gluten. The qualities of gluten‐free breads are usually improved by the addition of many ingredients such as tapioca and potato starches. Germination process naturally produces bioactive compounds and activates enzymes. Germination conditions that produce greater activities of amylases and protease can be used to produce gluten‐free breads with better qualities and longer shelf‐life without the addition of starch. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine whether pitch, tempo, and volume levels of music stimuli affect sensory perception and acceptance of foods. A traditional music piece was arranged into versions at two pitches, two tempos, and two volumes. For each session, chocolate and bell peppers were presented for consumption under three sound conditions: 1) upper or 2) lower level with respect to each of the three music elements, and 3) silence. Over three sessions, participants evaluated flavor intensity, pleasantness of flavor, texture impression, and overall impression of food samples, in addition to the pleasantness and stimulation evoked by the music stimuli. Results showed that lower-pitched and louder music stimuli increased hedonic impressions of foods compared to their respective counterparts and/or the silent condition. While the effects of music element levels on hedonic impressions differed with the type of food consumed, the participants liked the foods more when music stimuli were perceived as more pleasant and stimulating. Flavor was perceived as more intense when participants were more stimulated by the music samples. Although a specific element of music stimuli was manipulated, perceptions of other elements also varied, leading to large variations in the music-evoked pleasantness and stimulation. In conclusion, the findings provide empirical evidence that hedonic impressions of foods may be influenced by emotions evoked by music selections varying in music element levels, but it should be also noted that the influences were food-dependent and not pronounced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines two different strategies with respect to managing the order in which information about genetically modified (GM) technology would reach and impact consumers of edamame, often referred to as the “vegetable soybean”. Edamame are soybeans harvested while the beans are young and soft. We capture consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for unlabeled edamame, non-GM edamame, and GM edamame using a non-hypothetical random nth price auction. We elicit consumers’ valuation for each edamame product before and after introducing information, and test two strategies where the order of providing positive and negative information is reversed. The results suggest that negative information affects WTP to a much greater extent than positive information. Hence a strategy to proactively deal with eventual negative press about GM technology did not lead to a different result than a strategy that would react to or attempt to thwart negative information with positive information at a later date. These findings suggest that it would be difficult to introduce new GM edamame as edible products in the market as marginally negative preconceptions about GM at the time of the experiment were easier to reinforce with negative information than to combat with positive information about GM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: This study aimed to determine whether texture perception and acceptance of cooked rice could differ with cultural background, especially between Korean and American participants. Participants evaluated eight cooked rice samples with respect to intensities of textural attributes such as visual stickiness, hardness, stickiness and chewiness. Participants also rated the acceptability of and familiarity with those samples. Results showed that Americans gave higher ratings to cooked rice samples with respect to visual stickiness, stickiness and chewiness, while Koreans gave higher ratings to hardness than their counterpart. For Americans, chewiness was considered as a negative driver; whereas for Koreans, visual stickiness and stickiness were identified as positive drivers of overall liking for cooked rice samples. Moreover, a familiarity level of cooked rice samples was a pronounced positive driver of liking for both American and Korean participants. In conclusion, our findings provide empirical evidence that cultural background influences texture perception and liking of cooked rice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Results from a sensory test of edamame, which is soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) harvested near the end of the pod filling stage, followed by a non‐hypothetical auction, and finally a questionnaire were used to determine WTP for GM labeled edamame in comparison to unlabeled and non‐GM labeled edamame. The results showed a significant price premium for non‐GM edamame even though overall sensory impression did not differ between GM and non‐GM edamame. Interestingly unlabeled and GM labeled edamame bids were similar suggesting that consumers wanted to be informed. Preconceived consumer notions appeared to play a role as did knowledge, opinion, income, and consumption frequency in subsamples of respondents. Labeling edamame is in the interest of producers as all edamame produced in the U.S. is non‐GM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Cinnamon leaf and bark essential oils have long been used as natural preservatives and flavoring agents in foods. This study determined antimicrobial effects of leaf and bark of cinnamon essential oils (CEOs) against 2 foodborne pathogens, Salmonella Typhimurium (S.T.) and Listeria monocytogenes (L.m.), at 2 initial bacterial levels (4‐ and 9‐log CFU/mL) in strawberry shakes. The antimicrobial study of CEOs at 0.1% and 0.5% in strawberry shakes against S.T. and L.M. showed a significant difference (P < 0.05) in log reductions of both bacterial growth at low (4‐log CFU/mL) and high (9‐log CFU/mL) initial bacterial levels. Addition of 0.5% CEOs into strawberry shakes at 4 °C completely inhibited both bacteria after a period of 8 d storage. Shelf‐life study showed that acidity and total solid content were not affected during storage. The strawberry shakes containing bark CEO had higher ratings of sensory acceptability compared to leaf CEO, with or without the addition of 1% masking agent. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that CEO derived from bark was better than that from leaf in terms of their antimicrobial activity and sensory aspect. Practical Application: This study demonstrates that essential oils derived from cinnamon bark and leaf have the potential to be used as natural antimicrobial ingredient in milk beverages with respect to sensory aspect. This finding promotes the acceptance of natural antimicrobials among consumers, while providing enhanced safer products to the food industry application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coffee and green tea are popular beverages consumed at both hot and cold temperatures. When people consume hot beverages concurrently with other activities, they may experience at different temperatures over the period of consumption. However, there has been limited research investigating the effects of product temperatures on emotional responses and sensory attributes of beverages. This study aimed to determine whether emotional responses to, and sensory attributes of, brewed coffee and green tea vary as a function of sample temperature. Using a check-all-that-apply (CATA) method, 157 participants (79 for coffee and 78 for green tea) were asked to evaluate either coffee or green tea samples served at cold (5°C), ambient (25°C), and hot (65°C) temperatures with respect to emotional responses and sensory attributes. The results showed that sample temperature could have significant influences on emotional responses to, and sensory attributes of, coffee and green tea samples. More specifically, 6 and 18 sensory attributes of coffee and green tea samples, respectively, significantly differed with sample temperature. Beverage samples evaluated at 65°C were characterized, regardless of activation/arousal level, by positive emotional responses terms and favorable sensory attributes. While beverages evaluated at 25°C were associated more with negative emotional responses with low activation/arousal, those evaluated at 5°C were more frequently characterized as having negative emotional responses with high activation/arousal. Sensory and emotional drivers of liking for both coffee and green tea differed both with sample temperature and gender. While both emotional responses and sensory attributes were identified as drivers of liking among females, only emotional responses were identified as drivers of liking among males. In conclusion, this study provides empirical evidence that both emotional responses to, and sensory attributes of, coffee and green tea beverages can vary with sample temperatures. To provide a better understanding of product characteristics, emotional responses to, and sensory attributes of, coffee or green tea beverages should be tested over a wider range of product temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Ortho- and retronasal olfaction represent two aspects of a shared sensory system yet evoke different sensations. The differences between ortho- and retronasal olfaction have triggered a number of studies during the past years, which pointed towards a decreased sensitivity to odors presented through the retronasal olfactory pathway. Especially intensity was reported to be lower after retronasal olfactory stimulation. The aim of this study was to investigate how this compares to activation at the level of the olfactory epithelium in humans. Methods: Trigeminal (CO) and olfactory (HS, phenylethyl alcohol) stimuli were presented ortho- and retronasally. Electro-olfactograms (EOG) in response to chemosensory stimulation were recorded in 10 participants (6 women, 4 men, mean age 23.4 years). Results: Typical EOGs were demonstrable after either orthonasal or retronasal stimulation across the stimulus qualities. Overall, EOG amplitudes to retronasal stimulation were smaller when compared to those to orthonasal stimulation, but a significant difference was obtained only in phenylethyl alcohol ( p = 0.048). Conclusions: The present data indicate that the perceptual differences between ortho- and retronasal olfaction may start at the level of the olfactory epithelium. The data support the idea that the intensity of physically identical stimuli is lower after retronasal stimulation compared to orthonasal stimulus presentation for both olfactory and trigeminal stimuli. Implications: The current electrophysiological results are in line with reported differences in psychophysical properties of retro- and orthonasal stimulations meaning that different sensations are elicit through these two channels although the same molecule is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine whether panelists' attribute-intensity ratings and performances in descriptive sensory analysis could vary with the type of reference scale used. Seven panelists, three times each, evaluated flavor attributes of eight cooked-rice samples using either the universal aromatic scale (UAS) or the rice aromatic scale (RAS). Both scales could differentiate cooked rice samples with respect to individual flavor attributes, although the RAS was more sensitive to several attributes such as cardboard and metallic flavors. While both types of reference scale exhibited good repeatability, the RAS demonstrated better performance in terms of panel agreement and discriminability than did the UAS. Both scales produced similar clustering of cooked rice samples based on flavor attribute intensities. In conclusion, while either type could be effectively used as a quantitative frame of reference in descriptive sensory analysis of cooked rice, the RAS performed better than the UAS with respect to detecting and scoring subtle sample differences in flavor attribute intensities. Practical applications Despite its popular use as a quantitative frame of reference in the descriptive sensory analysis for a broad range of products, the UAS has the limitation that panelists may use only a narrow range of the entire scale when products to be tested have either very low or very high intensities. This study showed such a limitation in several flavor attributes of cooked rice samples with typically weak flavors. Our findings provide a better understanding regarding how choice of a quantitative frame of reference influences descriptive sensory analysis of cooked rice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Earlier research considered ethnic congruent versus incongruent music; this study extended earlier research by comparing the impacts of ethnic congruent music, ethnic incongruent music and restaurant background sounds on the dining experience. Additionally, it extends earlier research considering the impact on menu item selection and price expectations based on the impact of music/sound. Findings indicated music congruence effects along with baseline sounds should be considered by practitioners and researchers. Italian folk music increased Italian item selections compared to restaurant background sounds. Thai folk music was equal to background sounds for Thai items. Higher expected prices were apparent when listening to both Italian music and background sounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Previous research showed that the number of chews has been shown to influence flavor perception in crispy potato chips. This study aimed to further determine how the number of chews modulates the temporal dynamics of flavor perception (i.e., flavor development) in potato chips. Methods: The number of chews was manipulated not only by changing chewing rate (40, 80, and 120 chews/min) for a fixed swallowing time (at 25 s after the onset of the first bite; experiment 1), but also by changing the time to swallow (10, 20, and 30 s after the onset of the first bite) for a constant chewing rate (80 chews/min; experiment 2). Results: In experiment 1, the time-intensity (TI) analysis showed that the maximum flavor intensity (Imax) and the area under the curve (AUC) were significantly higher for the medium (80 chews/min) and fast (120 chews/min) chewing rates than for the slow (40 chews/min) chewing rate in both plain and spicy flavored chips. In experiment 2, the temporal flavor perception was altered by the interaction between the chewing duration before swallowing and the flavor type of the potato chips. More specifically, in the natural chewing rate, while the Imax and AUC of spicy flavored chips were the greatest when the bolus was swallowed after the natural chewing-duration (for 20 s), the AUC of plain flavored chips was significantly greater in the longer chewing-duration (for 30 s) than the natural chewing-duration. Conclusions: This study supports and extends the notion that the number of chews, and corresponding parameters such as chewing rate and duration, affect temporal flavor perception in the plain and spicy flavored potato chips. Implications: Our findings show that flavor intensity of plain and spicy potato chips can be reduced when people chew the chips slowly and/or swallow quickly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: This study aimed to determine whether a smoking restriction prior to sensory evaluation affects sensory perception and liking of beverages that represent sweetness (sweetened cocoa), saltiness (vegetable juice), sourness (orange juice), and bitterness (black coffee). Methods: Smokers were asked to either abstain from smoking for 2 h or to smoke a cigarette 5 min prior to sensory evaluation of beverages. As a control, non-smokers participated in this study. Results: Smokers who smoked 5 min prior to tasting beverages rated black coffee as significantly more bitter than did those who either abstained from smoking for 2 h or non-smokers. No effect of cigarette smoking was found either in intensity of other taste qualities and flavor or in the liking of the four types of beverages. Conclusion: This study provides empirical evidence that cigarette smokers should abstain from smoking for 2 h prior to sensory evaluation of bitter-tasting beverages such as black coffee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose In most restaurants or dining facilities, even though a set of condiments such as salt, black pepper, ketchup, and mustard, is placed on the tables, and such condiments are a staple of many cuisines, they have been largely ignored with respect to understanding their effects on food choice. The purpose of this study is to determine whether condiments placed on tables at dining facilities can affect consumers’ cuisine selection.Design/methodology/approach Four individual booths were set up with four different condiment configurations: 1) branded ketchup and mustard, 2) unbranded ketchup and mustard, 3) unbranded soy sauce and chili-garlic sauce, and 4) no condiment. In all, 68 participants were assigned in random sequence to all booths, with each given a menu listing nine different cuisines (three North American, three Asian, and three Hispanic cuisines) in a random order, and asked to identify their top three preferred cuisines at each booth.Findings Participants chose Asian cuisines with higher priority than Mexican and North American selections when Asian condiments were placed on the table. Interestingly, this effect occurred only when the participants had noticed the condiment setting, but not when they had unnoticed it. Such Asian condiment availability-induced cuisine selection was also more pronounced for external eaters.Research limitations/implications Food service professionals and business owners, especially in food courts comprised of a variety of ethnic food vendors, should perhaps consider placing a set of condiments associated with their target cuisines at visible table spaces at dining facilities, thereby leading customers to select their cuisine items.Originality/value This study provides new empirical evidence that consumers are more likely to select cuisines congruent to the choice of condiment setting placed on their dining table. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine individual and combined effects of smoking and marination on the sensory characteristics of boneless, skinless chicken breast meat. Four types of cooked, cold-cut chicken breast meat, i.e., marinated cooked, marinated smoked, and controls of non-marinated cooked and non-marinated smoked chicken, were evaluated for 28 sensory characteristics. Marination significantly increased saltiness, sweetness, roasted flavor, smoked flavor, and moistness of the cold-cut chicken breast meat. In addition, smoking significantly enhanced the saltiness, bitterness, roasted flavor, smoked flavor, and moistness of mass. Interestingly, a combination of smoking and marination processes resulted in a synergistic increase in the perceived moistness of mass compared to their individual treatments. In conclusion, this study demonstrates individual and combined influences of smoking and marination on the sensory characteristics of cold-cut chicken breast meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine whether five types of beverage, milk (3.3% fat), oolong tea, tomato juice, sparkling water and spring water, reduce the residual spiciness elicited by eating spicy chicken over time. After tasting a piece of spicy popcorn chicken, participants were asked to drink one of five beverages one after another and rate the spiciness intensity using the time-intensity ( TI) analysis. Based on the TI parameters, milk was found to be the best beverage to reduce residual spiciness of spicy chicken over time. Participants rated milk the most effective in decreasing residual spiciness of spicy chicken. Partial least squares regression revealed that the three TI parameters, area under the curve, decreasing area and increasing area, are the best predictors of the self-reported ratings for spiciness-reduction effect of individual beverages. In conclusion, this study shows that milk (3.3% fat) can be used as a palate cleanser for spicy chicken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein beverages have been in demand due to an increasing consumers' interest in healthy eating habit. However, there is an increased concern on the use of genetic modified (GM) ingredient in the food product. This study aimed to develop protein hydrolysate beverages using a non-GM soybean (R08-4004/high protein line) grown in Arkansas. Protein isolate was prepared from the soybean using alkaline method (pH 9.5). Due to its poor solubility in acidic condition, alcalase 2.4 L (food grade protease) hydrolyzed soy protein was used to develop a beverage containing 20 g protein per serving (500 mL). Three flavored beverages: Chai tea (C), tangerine (T), and mixed berries (MB) were prepared using bitter blocker, masking agent, and citric acid to minimize an unpleasant bitter taste developed in the soy hydrolysates. Protein solubility, pH, microbial growth, instrumental color parameters, and turbidity were measured to evaluate the shelf-life stability of the beverages at refrigerated storage (5 °C) for 42 days. Beverages T and MB received overall highest scores from the sensory panel. Citric acid alone or in combination with bitter blocker or masking agent lowered the bitterness. Pasteurization (90-95 °C for 5 min) was effective in preventing microbial growth. Although pH remained constant, decrease in protein solubility and color changes were observed over the storage time in all the three flavored beverages. Cloudiness in beverage C increased over the storage period while beverages T and MB were very stable. Overall, T and MB flavored beverages have the potential for commercial application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Little has been reported about the sensory impact of degree of milling ( DOM) on raw, uncooked rice. This study focuses on the effects of DOM, which was measured by surface lipid content ( SLC), on appearance and aroma attributes of raw rice, as well as the appearance of cooked rice; greater DOM leads to lesser SLC levels. RESULTS Milled-rice samples with SLCs of 0.64, 0.59, 0.42 and 0.25%, as well as brown rice (2.27% total lipid content), were evaluated by trained panelists on three appearance- and five aroma-related attributes of raw rice, as well as four appearance-related attributes of the resultant cooked rice. All milled-rice samples, varying in SLC level from 0.64% to 0.25%, differed from brown rice with respect to raw-rice and cooked-rice appearance and aroma attributes. A significant sensory difference among the four raw-rice samples was present only in the degree of whiteness; however, such a difference was absent once the samples were cooked. When cooked, highly milled rice (0.25% SLC) was rated glossier than either lightly milled rice (0.64% SLC) or brown rice. CONCLUSION The present study demonstrated that sensory impacts of DOM on raw rice were present between brown rice and milled-rice samples, but not among the milled-rice samples varying in SLC level from 0.64% to 0.25%. The overall findings indicate that consumers may not detect appearance- or aroma-related differences among raw-rice samples ranging in SLC from 0.64% to 0.25%. © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A pentapeptide prepared from rice bran demonstrated growth inhibition on human lung, liver, breast, and colon cancer cell lines. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the human prostate cancer growth inhibition by the pentapeptide and its 6-mo storage stability by incorporating spray-dried orange juice, and determining sensory acceptability. The pentapeptide showed inhibition of human prostate cancer cells by 45% at 460 μg/mL concentration. When incorporated in spray-dried orange juice, and reconstituted with water and tested, there was an approximately 10% degradation of the peptide at 620 μg/mL concentration under refrigerated conditions over a 6 mo storage period, whereas at ambient temperature the degradation was 30%. Larger degradation was observed when 240 or 460 μg/mL pentapeptide was used. Overall, consumer panelists liked sensory aspect of the reconstituted pentapeptide incorporated orange juice beverage. Also consumer panelists liked the color and mouthfeel attributes, their hedonic impression of flavor attribute was slightly low due to unpalatable bitter note caused by the presence of the peptide. Incorporation of the pentapeptide in spray-dried orange juice has the potential to serve as a functional food ingredient that can offer health benefits to consumers. It is possible that the structural instability can be minimized by encapsulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine whether ambient light colors affect consumers' willingness to eat, sensory perceptions and hedonic impressions of foods. Sliced apples and red bell peppers were presented under five different colors of light: white, yellow, green, blue and red, respectively. Participants were asked to observe the presented food under these colored lights, to rate their willingness to eat and liking of food appearance. After tasting, participants were asked to rate intensities of flavor and crispness and rate overall impression of the food. When the food samples were presented under white or yellow light rather than blue light, participants not only wanted to eat more, but also liked the foods more. Participants were especially more willing to eat apples under yellow light than under white light commonly experienced in daily life. Flavor intensity of apples was found to be lower under blue light than under yellow, white or red light; this trend was not observed in flavor intensity of bell peppers. Crispness intensities were not different among the five light-color conditions. In conclusion, our findings support and extend the notion that light colors modulate consumers' willingness to eat and their hedonic impressions of foods, especially apples and bell peppers. Practical Applications As multicolored light-emitting diode bulbs have become popular, foods and drinks are often displayed under colored light in restaurants and retail stores. The results of this study will provide sensory scientists and food-service professionals with valuable insights as to how their consumers will most likely behave under colored lights in a given dining establishment. In addition, based on findings that participants' appetites were significantly higher for apples under yellow light than under white light, yellow light might be used as a tool for encouraging people to consume more apples in everyday life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study assesses the impact of the liking level of specific wines and foods on wine–food match perceptions. The findings assist in understanding the complex relationship between wine–food combinations and perceptions of liking when consumed together. Generally, the significant differences in match level in this 2 × 2 design followed traditional perceptions matches and mismatches. This provides empirical support for these relationships across a diverse group of respondents in terms of objective wine–food knowledge and involvement. Three of the four wine–food combinations had positive direct relationships among wine liking, food liking, or both on the liking level of the wine–food combination when tasted together. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This study aims to examine the current attitudes of North American consumers toward food attributes, focusing on the effect of gender and age. A total of 337 participants were asked to list the first three words that come to mind when each image/name of 32 different foods was presented. The responses were grouped into seven main categories: 'food attribute,' 'menu uses,' 'type,' 'personal preference,' 'health and nutrition,' 'regional origin' and 'others' and subsequent subcategories. The frequencies of answers for each category were compared by gender and age group. Texture- and flavor-related responses became less common as age increased. Conversely, 'health and nutrition' responses became more common with increasing age. In addition, male participants were more likely to give color, flavor and food brand-related responses, while female participants were more likely to list texture, form/temperature and personal preference-related words. Furthermore, this study shows the changes in consumer attitudes toward foods for the last several decades. Practical Applications Little is known on how food attitudes change with age. The changes in food perception that accompany aging are well documented. However, the extent these changes lead to altered attitudes toward food has not been examined. In addition, for approximately 50 years, the food industry has been operating on the same information regarding the importance of texture and other food attributes to consumers. During this period, many changes in demographics and cuisine have occurred, yet we do not know how these have affected consumer attitude toward foods. This study gives insight into changes in consumer attitudes toward foods since the 1960s and 1970s, as well as changes associated with aging for food scientists, food processors and business marketers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are growing interests for both ethnic and healthy foods in the U.S.A. Rapidly increasing attention has also been paid to the development of gluten-free or dietary fiber-rich products. S eolgitteok ( Korean traditional rice cake) is prepared mainly with sugar, salt, water and white rice flour containing no gluten, by steaming. Based on two points that (1) brown rice, relative to white rice, retains more nutritional values and (2) North Americans, in comparison to East Asians, tend to prefer stronger sweetness, this study prepared S eolgitteok with varying added levels of brown rice flour and sugar. Following the Spectrum method, 9 trained panelists evaluated 15 S eolgitteok samples for 12 flavor-related and 15 texture-related attributes. The intensities of sensory attributes significantly varied in relation to the added levels of brown rice flour and sugar in S eolgitteok. Especially, flavor- and texture-related attributes were more associated with the added amounts of brown rice flour and sugar, respectively. Practical Applications This study provides how sensory characteristics of S eolgitteok can vary by added levels of brown rice flour and sugar. Our findings can assist product developers and sensory professionals in understanding sensory characteristics of S eolgitteok, which may be applicable for patients with celiac diseases as it is made with rice flour containing no gluten. Finally, it is worth noting that a list of sensory terms, developed by North American trained panel in the U.S.A., may facilitate its usage and application in English-speaking countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Food products are often encountered under colored lighting, particularly in restaurants and retail stores. However, relatively little attention has been paid to whether the color of ambient lighting can affect consumers' motivation for consumption. This study aimed to determine whether color (Experiment 1) and illuminance level (Experiment 2) of lighting can influence consumers' liking of appearance and their willingness to eat bell peppers. RESULTS For red, green, and yellow bell peppers, yellow and blue lighting conditions consistently increased participants' liking of appearance the most and the least, respectively. Participants' willingness to consume bell peppers increased the most under yellow lighting and the least under blue lighting. In addition, a dark condition (i.e. low level of lighting illuminance) decreased liking of appearance and willingness to eat the bell peppers compared to a bright condition (i.e. high level of lighting illuminance). CONCLUSION Our findings demonstrate that lighting color and illuminance level can influence consumers' hedonic impression and likelihood to consume bell peppers. Furthermore, the influences of color and illuminance level of lighting appear to be dependent on the surface color of bell peppers. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to compare how Texture Profile Analysis ( TPA), Blunt- Meullenet- Owens Razor Shear ( BMORS) test and Allo- Kramer Shear Press test predict sensory texture attributes of poultry deli meats. Descriptive analysis found that 15 different commercial poultry deli meats differed in the sensory attributes of springiness, hardness, cohesiveness of mass, fibrousness between teeth and rubberiness. Using partial least squares regression, the BMORS test proved to be an excellent predictor of the sensory attributes of hardness ( R2 = 0.95) and fibrousness ( R2 = 0.93), while TPA provided an excellent model for predicting springiness ( R2 = 0.97). Cohesiveness of mass ( R2 = 0.59) and rubberiness ( R2 = 0.70) were not well predicted. In conclusion, this study characterized the textural attributes of poultry deli meats. Practical Applications Poultry deli meat texture can be affected by many factors related to product formulation (ingredients), starting raw materials and processing conditions. Nevertheless, little is known about the textural attributes of the poultry deli meats. Therefore, current study provides a better understanding for not only the texture characteristics of poultry deli meats using sensory and instrumental approaches, but also the relationships between two. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a need to reduce the fat content in fried foods because of increasing health concerns from consumers. Oxidized starches have been utilized in many coating applications for their adhesion ability. However, it is not known if they perform similarly in bake-only products. This study investigated the application of oxidized starch in bake-only chicken nuggets. Oxidized starches were prepared from 7 starches and analyzed for gelatinization and pasting properties. Chicken nuggets were prepared using batter containing wheat flour, oxidized starch, salt, and leavening agents prior to steaming, oven baking, freezing, and final oven baking for sensory evaluation. All nuggets were analyzed for hardness by a textural analyzer, crispness by an acoustic sound, and sensory characteristics by a trained panel. The oxidation level used in the study did not alter the gelatinization temperature of most starches, but increased the peak pasting viscosity of both types of corn and rice starches and decreased that of tapioca and potato starches. There were slight differences in peak force and acoustic reading between some treatments; however, the differences were not consistent with starch type or amylose content. There was no difference among the treatments as well as between the control with wheat flour and the treatments partially replaced with oxidized starches in all sensory attributes of bake-only nuggets evaluated by the trained panel. Practical Application There is a need to reduce the fat content in fried food, such as chicken nuggets, because of increasing childhood obesity. Oxidized starches are widely used in coating applications for their adhesion ability. This study investigated the source of oxidized starches in steam-baked coated nuggets for their textural and sensorial properties. The findings from this research will provide an understanding of the contributions of starch source and oxidation to the texture and sensory attributes of bake-only nuggets, and future directions to improve the batter formulation for bake-only nuggets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of enzyme modification on starch as an effective oil delivery system for bake-only chicken nuggets. Various native starches were hydrolyzed by amyloglucosidase to a hydrolysis degree of 20% to 25% and plated with 50% (w/w, starch dry basis) with canola oil to create a starch-oil matrix. This matrix was then blended into a dry ingredient blend for batter and breader components. Nuggets were prepared by coated with predust, hydrated batter, and breader, and the coated nuggets were steam-baked until fully cooked and then frozen until texture and sensory analyses. The enzyme-modified starches showed a significant decrease in pasting viscosities for all starch types. For textural properties of nuggets, no clear relationship was found between peak force and starch source or amylose content. Sensory attributes related to fried foods (for example, crispness and mouth-coating) did not significantly differ between bake-only nuggets formulated using the enzyme-modified starches and the partially fried and baked ones. The present findings suggest that enzyme-modified starches can deliver sufficient quantity of oil to create sensory attributes similar to those of partially fried chicken nuggets. Further study is needed to optimize the coating formulation of bake-only chicken nugget to become close to the fried one in sensory aspects. Practical Application The food industry has become increasingly focused on healthier items. Frying imparts several critical and desirable product functionalities, such as developing texture and color, and providing mouth-feel and flavor. The food industry has yet to duplicate all of the unique characteristics of fried chicken nuggets with a baking process. This study investigated the application of enzyme-modified starch as an oil delivery system in bake-only chicken nugget formulation in attempts to provide characteristics of fried items. This information is useful to improve the nutritional value of fried food by eliminating the frying process while preserving the desired characteristics of fried products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine 1) whether certain background sounds can be matched with specific odors and 2) whether the background sounds can increase pleasantness for their congruent odors. In Experiment 1, congruent sounds increased odor pleasantness, but not odor intensity, significantly more than incongruent sounds. Experiment 2 demonstrated that certain background sounds can be paired with specific odors. For example, cinnamon, clove, and orange odors were rated significantly more congruent with a Christmas carol compared with the sound of brushing teeth and/or the beach sound. The congruent sounds increased odor pleasantness significantly more than incongruent sounds. Similarly, the congruent sound–induced odor pleasantness was observed in Experiment 3. As participants judged the pair of odor and sound to be more congruent, they rated the odor significantly more pleasant. Congruent sound assisted participants in identifying and in being familiar with the odor, thereby leading to an increase in odor pleasantness. However, the congruent sound–induced odor pleasantness was not obtained in all odors. In conclusion, this study provides new empirical evidence that pleasantness ratings for odors can increase in the presence of their congruent sounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is typically recommended that panelists should refrain from wearing personal fragrances, such as perfume or cologne, prior to sensory evaluation. Interestingly, no study has been reported as to whether panelists' perceptions of test samples could be affected by personal fragrances worn by themselves. The objective of this study was, therefore, to determine the effect of such a personal fragrance on olfactory performance. Nineteen untrained participants were screened, recruited for, and underwent the Sniffin' Sticks test designed for measuring olfactory performances that included the odor threshold, discrimination, and identification (TDI). The olfactory performance tasks were conducted under three fragrance level conditions: (1) control (no fragrance), (2) just-about-right (JAR), and (3) excessive, with a preliminary study used to identify both the JAR and excessive fragrance levels. The results showed that the odor discrimination, odor threshold, and combined TDI performances were significantly lowered in the two conditions with the perfume fragrance, while the odor identification performance exhibited no significant differences across all three conditions. These findings provide empirical evidence that even low to moderate levels of personal fragrance can significantly reduce individuals' olfactory capabilities, possibly subsequently altering the perception of test samples during sensory evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A process of removing thinner kernels of rough rice, i.e., thickness fraction process, has been suggested as a method for increasing milling yields in the rice industry. This study aimed at determining whether physicochemical properties, cooking qualities, and sensory characteristics of rice samples could be changed by the addition of a thickness fraction into the rice process stream. Each of four long-grain rice cultivar lots was assigned into two groups: unfractionated and thickness-fractionated. For the thickness-fractionated group, thin rice kernels (<1.9 mm) of rough rice were discarded from unfractionated rice samples. Unfractionated and thickness-fractionated rice samples were compared with respect to physicochemical properties, cooking qualities, and sensory characteristics. The results showed that the removal of such thin kernels decreased the breakage and chalkiness rates and increased head rice yields. Fractionated rice samples exhibited lower amylose contents and crude protein contents but higher gelatinization temperatures than unfractionated rice samples. While the optimum cooking duration and width–expansion ratios of thickness-fractionated rice samples were higher than those of unfractionated ones, there was a negligible impact of the thickness fraction process on sensory characteristics of long-grain rice samples. In conclusion, the thickness fraction process affects physicochemical properties and cooking qualities more than the sensory characteristics of rice samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Wheat flour is increasingly being fortified worldwide with vitamin A and iron. Research on high levels of fortification is limited; therefore, in this study, wheat flour was made under controlled conditions fortified with vitamin A at 30 000 or 70 000 retinol equivalents ( RE) kg−1 and three types of iron source at 66 mg kg−1. Results Milling produced a uniform distribution of fortificants with no significant separation during packaging or transportation. Chemical and physical analyses demonstrated that the dual fortified flours had acceptable physicochemical properties of mixing tolerance, pasting curves, damaged starch and falling numbers. The level of vitamin A fortification compensated for initial loss caused during wheat processing. Overall, white breads baked from seven treatments of fortified flour had only 22% (eight out of 36) of the sensory attributes as being significantly different. However, the type of iron source may play a key role in modulating the sensory attributes of bread baked from the dual fortified flour with vitamin A and iron. Conclusion The findings suggest that dual fortified flour with high or even lower levels of vitamin A and iron could be considered for food fortification programmes to reduce the prevalence of micronutrient undernutrition of vitamin A and iron in developing countries. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excessive intake of dietary salt (sodium chloride) may increase the risk of chronic diseases. Accordingly, various strategies to reduce salt intake have been conducted. This study aimed to investigate whether a salty-congruent odor can enhance saltiness on the basis of psychophysical (Experiment 1) and neuroanatomical levels (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, after receiving one of six stimulus conditions: three odor conditions (odorless air, congruent, or incongruent odor) by two concentrations (low or high) of either salty or sweet taste solution, participants were asked to rate taste intensity and pleasantness. In Experiment 2, participants received the same stimuli during the functional magnetic resonance imaging scan. In Experiment 1, compared with an incongruent odor and/or odorless air, a congruent odor enhanced not only taste intensity but also either pleasantness of sweetness or unpleasantness of saltiness. In Experiment 2, a salty-congruent combination of odor and taste produced significantly higher neuronal activations in brain regions associated with odor-taste integration (e.g., insula, frontal operculum, anterior cingulate cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex) than an incongruent combination and/or odorless air with taste solution. In addition, the congruent odor-induced saltiness enhancement was more pronounced in the low-concentrated tastant than in the high-concentrated one. In conclusion, this study demonstrates the congruent odor-induced saltiness enhancement on the basis of psychophysical and neuroanatomical results. These findings support an alternative strategy to reduce excessive salt intake by adding salty-congruent aroma to sodium reduced food. However, there are open questions regarding the salty-congruent odor-induced taste unpleasantness. Hum Brain Mapp, 2013. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research demonstrated that background noise relative to silence impaired subjects' performance in a cognitively driven odor discrimination test. The current study aimed to investigate whether the background noise can also modulate performance in an odor sensitivity task that is less cognitively loaded. Previous studies have shown that the effect of background noise on task performance can be different in relation to degree of extraversion and/or type of noise. Accordingly, we wanted to examine whether the influence of background noise on the odor sensitivity task can be altered as a function of the type of background noise (i.e., nonverbal vs. verbal noise) and the degree of extraversion (i.e., introvert vs. extrovert group). Subjects were asked to conduct an odor sensitivity task in the presence of either nonverbal noise (e.g., party sound) or verbal noise (e.g., audio book), or silence. Overall, the subjects' mean performance in the odor sensitivity task was not significantly different across three auditory conditions. However, with regard to the odor sensitivity task, a significant interaction emerged between the type of background noise and the degree of extraversion. Specifically, verbal noise relative to silence significantly impaired or improved the performance of the odor sensitivity task in the introvert or extrovert group, respectively; the differential effect of introversion/extraversion was not observed in the nonverbal noise-induced task performance. In conclusion, our findings provide new empirical evidence that type of background noise and degree of extraversion play an important role in modulating the effect of background noise on subjects' performance in an odor sensitivity task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How the pleasantness of chemosensory stimuli such as odorants or intranasal trigeminal compounds is processed in the human brain has been the focus of considerable recent interest. Yet, so far, only the unimodal form of this hedonic processing has been explored, and not its bimodal form during crossmodal integration of olfactory and trigeminal stimuli. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate this question. To this end, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used in an experiment comparing brain activation related to a pleasant and a relatively unpleasant olfactotrigeminal mixture, and to their individual components (CO2 alone, Orange alone, Rose alone). Results revealed first common neural activity patterns in response to both mixtures in a number of regions: notably the superior temporal gyrus and the caudate nucleus. Common activations were also observed in the insula, although the pleasant mixture activated the right insula whereas the unpleasant mixture activated the left insula. However, specific activations were observed in anterior cingulate gyrus and the ventral tegmental area only during the perception of the pleasant mixture. These findings emphasized for the firs time the involvement of the latter structures in processing of pleasantness during crossmodal integration of chemosensory stimuli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even though we often perceive odors in the presence of various background sounds, surprisingly little is known about the effects of background sound on odor perception. This study aimed to investigate the question whether background sound can modulate performance in an odor discrimination task. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to perform the odor discrimination task while listening to either background noise (e.g., verbal or non-verbal noise) or no additional sound (i.e., silent condition). Participants' performance in the odor discrimination task was significantly deteriorated in the presence of background noise compared with in the silent condition. Rather, the detrimental effect of verbal noise on the task performance was significantly higher than that of non-verbal noise. In Experiment 2, participants were asked to conduct the odor discrimination task while listening to either background music (Mozart's sonata for two pianos in D major, K448) or no additional sound (silent condition). Background music relative to silent condition did not significantly alter the task performance. In conclusion, our findings provide new empirical evidence that background sound modulates the performance in an odor discrimination task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]